The ocean faces an existential crisis requiring immediate, large-scale protection through marine parks. With 37.7% of fish stocks overfished, 11-14 million tonnes of plastic entering oceans annually, and deep-sea mining poised to begin within two years, the evidence demands that we rapidly expand marine protected areas from the current 2.8% effective protection to at least 30% by 2030. Scientific research demonstrates that well-designed marine parks deliver extraordinary results: fish biomass increases by 670% in no-take reserves, degraded ecosystems recover within a decade, and every dollar invested returns $5.40 in economic benefits. The path to protecting our oceans is clear, proven, and economically advantageous—we simply need the political will to implement it at scale.
The ocean emergency demands immediate action
Our oceans have reached a critical tipping point that threatens marine ecosystems, global food security, and climate stability. The scale of degradation has accelerated dramatically since 2020, with multiple converging threats creating what scientists describe as an unprecedented marine crisis.
Plastic pollution has reached catastrophic levels, with 500+ million tonnes consumed globally in 2024, resulting in 11-14 million tonnes entering oceans yearly.¹ Not a single square mile of ocean surface remains free from plastic contamination, with 15-51 trillion pieces now polluting waters from equator to poles.² The impacts are devastating: over one million marine animals die annually from plastic pollution, while 56% of all marine life has ingested plastic.³ Microplastics have infiltrated the entire marine food web, with 89% of plastic litter on the ocean floor consisting of single-use items.⁴ Under business-as-usual scenarios, plastic waste could reach 1.2 billion tonnes by 2060, fundamentally altering ocean chemistry and ecosystems.⁵
The overfishing crisis continues to worsen despite international agreements with Deep Sea Trawling practices inflicting terrible damage on our ocean floors. FAO’s 2024 assessment reveals that 37.7% of monitored fish stocks are now overfished, up from 35.4% just two years ago.⁶ Only 62.3% of fishery stocks remain within biologically sustainable levels, with 90% of global stocks either fully-fished or overfished.⁷ Bottom trawling, the most destructive fishing practice, affects 25% of global catches while dragging nets across 4.9 million square kilometers of ocean floor yearly.⁸ This practice releases 0.52-1.47 billion metric tons of CO₂ annually—equivalent to global aviation emissions—while killing 20-50% of invertebrates in its path.⁹ The UK exemplifies this destruction: despite having 377 Marine Protected Areas, 90% still permit bottom trawling, with over 20,600 hours of trawling recorded in these supposedly protected areas in 2024 alone.¹⁰
Industrial pollution from the oil industry compounds these threats through both catastrophic spills and chronic contamination. Recent disasters include the November 2023 MPOG11015 incident near New Orleans that spilled 1.1 million gallons, while satellite analysis detected 20 offshore facilities releasing 300,000 gallons between June 2023 and October 2024.¹¹ The industry operates 240 offshore oil rigs globally, with ships visiting these facilities generating 9 million tons of CO₂ annually.¹² Beyond carbon emissions, routine operations release heavy metals and hydrocarbons into ocean waters, while noise pollution disrupts marine mammal communication across vast areas.¹³
Perhaps most concerning is the imminent threat of deep-sea mining, which could begin commercially as early as 2026. The International Seabed Authority continues negotiating regulations that would permit extraction of polymetallic nodules that took millions of years to form.¹⁴ Scientists warn that we possess only 1.1% of the knowledge needed for science-based decisions about deep-sea mining impacts.¹⁵ The potential for irreversible biodiversity loss is extreme, as the majority of deep-sea life depends on these metallic nodules for habitat. Mining would disrupt the ocean’s largest carbon storage reservoir during a climate emergency, potentially reducing carbon sequestration while releasing stored methane.¹⁶
The Kunming-Montreal Framework establishes an ambitious but essential target
The global community recognized this ocean crisis by adopting the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at COP15 in December 2022, establishing the most ambitious ocean protection commitment in history.¹⁷ Target 3, known as “30 by 30,” mandates that by 2030 at least 30% of coastal and marine areas be effectively conserved through ecologically representative, well-connected, and equitably governed systems of protected areas.¹⁸
The framework’s language emphasizes not just designation but effective conservation and management, requiring that protected areas deliver genuine conservation outcomes rather than existing as “paper parks.”¹⁹ This quality-focused approach reflects lessons learned from the failure of previous Aichi Targets, which saw many countries designate Marine Protected Areas without providing adequate management or enforcement. The framework also explicitly recognizes indigenous and traditional territories, mandating that conservation respects the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities while integrating traditional knowledge into management systems.²⁰
Current ocean protection statistics reveal the massive challenge ahead. While 8.3-9.61% of the ocean has some form of protection designation, only 2.8% is effectively protected according to Bloomberg Philanthropies and Marine Conservation Institute analysis.²¹ The gap becomes even starker when examining protection quality: just 0.6% of the global ocean consists of no-take reserves where extraction is completely prohibited, while 94% of designated MPAs still allow fishing.²² Regional variations highlight systemic failures in implementation—Latin America has designated 27% of its waters but only 2.5% receive effective protection, while Europe’s 20% designation translates to just 7% effective protection.²³
The mathematics of achieving 30% protection by 2030 are sobering. With approximately 21.7% more ocean area requiring protection—an area larger than the Indian Ocean—progress must accelerate from the current 0.5% annual increase to 2.7% per year.²⁴ At current rates, reaching the 30% target would take over 800 years. This requires a five to six-fold acceleration in designation and implementation, demanding unprecedented international cooperation and resource mobilization.
Despite these challenges, significant political momentum exists through the High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People, now comprising 119-120 countries co-chaired by Costa Rica and France.²⁵ The coalition won the 2024 Earthshot Prize, bringing both recognition and £1 million in funding.²⁶ Individual nations are demonstrating leadership: Chile expanded marine protection by 1.5 million km² in 2022, Canada designated the Tang.ɢwan MPA covering 150,000 km² with First Nations collaboration, and Peru approved the Grau Tropical Sea National Reserve in 2024.²⁷ The European Union has committed to protecting 30% of its waters by 2030 with 10% under strict protection, while 77 countries support the Global Ocean Alliance’s protection goals.²⁸
Scientific evidence proves marine protected areas deliver extraordinary results
Decades of research provide overwhelming evidence that well-designed Marine Protected Areas deliver dramatic ecological recovery, economic benefits, and climate resilience. The scientific consensus has crystallized around key findings that demonstrate MPAs are not just beneficial but essential for ocean health.
The foundational Edgar et al. study published in Nature analyzed global MPA effectiveness, revealing that reserves with five key features—no-take regulations, strong enforcement, age over 10 years, size exceeding 100 km², and ecological isolation—showed five times more large fish biomass than fished areas and fourteen times more shark biomass than unprotected sites.²⁹ Critically, this research found that 59% of MPAs studied had only one or two key features and were ecologically indistinguishable from fished areas, emphasizing that design and management quality determine success.
Meta-analyses by Sala and Giakoumi examining hundreds of marine reserves worldwide found even more dramatic results: 670% greater fish biomass in no-take reserves compared to unprotected areas, and 343% greater biomass than in partially protected MPAs.³⁰ These studies demonstrate a clear hierarchy of protection effectiveness, with partially protected areas showing only 183% greater biomass than unprotected zones—significant but far below the potential of full protection.
Real-world success stories validate these research findings. Mexico’s Cabo Pulmo National Marine Park exemplifies rapid ecosystem recovery through community-driven conservation. After designation in 1995, the park experienced a 460% increase in fish biomass within just 10 years, reaching levels comparable to pristine reefs.³¹ Species including whale sharks, manta rays, humpback whales, and sea turtles returned to waters where they had been absent for decades. The economic transformation proved equally dramatic: local income reached $18,000 per capita by 2006, more than double Mexico’s national average, as the community successfully transitioned from fishing to eco-tourism generating $538,000 annually.³²
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park’s 2004 rezoning provides evidence for large-scale network effectiveness. By increasing no-take areas from 5% to 33% of the park, Australia created a connected network where 99.5% of protected reefs have another no-take reef within 14 kilometers.³³ This connectivity ensures larval exchange and genetic diversity while providing spillover benefits—75% of fished reefs receive larvae from protected areas within 16 kilometers, enhancing fisheries productivity outside reserve boundaries.³⁴
MPAs also deliver critical climate benefits through blue carbon sequestration. The Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary sequesters 4,950 megagrams of carbon annually—equivalent to 18,150 metric tons of CO₂—providing $925,650 in annual societal benefit while sequestering 140 times more CO₂ than sanctuary operations emit.³⁵ UNESCO World Heritage marine sites contain 21% of global blue carbon ecosystem area and 15% of global blue carbon assets, storing carbon equivalent to approximately 10% of annual global greenhouse gas emissions.³⁶ These ecosystem services provide both climate mitigation and adaptation benefits, with protected coral reefs showing enhanced resilience to marine heatwaves and acidification.³⁷
The evidence establishes clear design principles for effective marine protection. No-take zones prove dramatically more effective than partial protection, enforcement emerges as the single most critical success factor, and minimum 10-year timeframes are required for meaningful ecological recovery.³⁸ Network connectivity with less than 30-kilometer spacing between reserves ensures larval exchange and population resilience, while integration of diverse habitats provides portfolio effects against climate impacts.³⁹
Implementation requires innovative financing and governance solutions
Achieving 30% ocean protection by 2030 demands $15.8 billion annually, yet current funding reaches only $1.2 billion—a gap representing just 0.5% of global defense budgets or two-thirds of harmful fishing subsidies.⁴⁰ However, innovative financing mechanisms and governance models are rapidly emerging that make large-scale protection both feasible and economically advantageous.
Debt-for-nature swaps have emerged as transformative tools for ocean protection. The Seychelles pioneered this approach in 2015, converting $21.6 million in debt through The Nature Conservancy’s innovative financial structuring.⁴¹ By purchasing government debt at a discount and refinancing at lower rates, the mechanism generates $430,000 annually for marine conservation while enabling the country to protect 410,000 km² of ocean—an area larger than Germany.⁴² This model proved so successful that TNC has now implemented six projects across Seychelles, Belize, Barbados, Gabon, Bahamas, and Ecuador, expecting to generate $1 billion in conservation funding while protecting 242 million hectares.⁴³
Blue bonds represent another breakthrough in conservation finance. The Seychelles issued the world’s first sovereign blue bond in 2018, raising $15 million with World Bank credit enhancement.⁴⁴ The structure allocated $3 million to marine protection and $12 million for sustainable fisheries loans, demonstrating how conservation and economic development can align. Belize achieved an even larger transformation in 2021 with the world’s largest debt conversion for marine conservation, reducing debt by 12% of GDP while committing to 30% ocean protection.⁴⁵ The mechanism included political risk and catastrophe insurance, providing resilience against climate impacts while securing conservation outcomes.
Technology has revolutionized enforcement capabilities, making large-scale protection feasible even in remote areas. The UK Blue Belt program monitors 4.4 million km² across overseas territories using satellite integration with Automatic Identification Systems and Synthetic Aperture Radar that detect vessels even when they attempt to “go dark.”⁴⁶ This technology has proven remarkably effective—protected areas with satellite monitoring show nine times less vessel presence than unprotected zones.⁴⁷ The system’s cost-effectiveness eliminates the need for expensive patrol vessels, with real-time alerts triggering targeted enforcement actions when violations occur.
Indigenous-led conservation models demonstrate how traditional knowledge enhances protection effectiveness. Indonesia’s Misool Marine Reserve integrates a 400-year-old Sasi system of traditional taboos with modern MPA designation, earning 2018 Blue Parks Platinum status.⁴⁸ Canada’s Gwaii Haanas exemplifies successful co-management between the Haida Nation and government, with shared jurisdiction producing both conservation success and cultural revitalization.⁴⁹ These partnerships prove essential—research shows that recognizing indigenous rights and knowledge systems significantly improves conservation outcomes while ensuring social equity.⁵⁰
Rapid scaling strategies from successful countries provide replicable models. The UK designated 41 new Marine Conservation Zones in a single 2019 announcement after streamlined scientific assessment and consultation with 48,000 public responses, achieving over 30% protection of UK waters within six years.⁵¹ The Eastern Tropical Pacific Marine Corridor demonstrates regional cooperation potential, with Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Panama protecting over 500,000 square kilometers through coordinated action backed by $150 million in funding.⁵²
Economic analysis reveals that the benefits far exceed costs. Research projects that achieving 30% protection would generate $85 billion annually by 2050 from just three ecosystem services: coastal defense, seagrass carbon storage, and fisheries restoration.⁵³ This 5.4:1 return on investment excludes additional benefits from tourism, biodiversity preservation, and climate resilience. The economic case becomes even stronger when considering that two-thirds of the $23 billion spent annually on harmful fishing subsidies could fund global ocean protection while improving long-term fisheries sustainability.⁵⁴
Future possibilities extend far beyond current targets
Scientific consensus increasingly supports protection levels well beyond 30%, with mounting evidence that safeguarding half the ocean may be necessary for maintaining ecosystem integrity and climate stability. The Nature Needs Half coalition, backed by the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation and supported by leading ecologists, argues that protecting 50% of Earth’s marine areas is essential for preventing biodiversity collapse and maintaining critical life-support functions.⁵⁵
The recently adopted UN High Seas Treaty creates unprecedented opportunities for achieving these ambitious goals. Once ratified by 60 countries, the treaty will enable protection of international waters covering two-thirds of the ocean—areas currently receiving only 1.5% protection.⁵⁶ This legal framework could facilitate rapid scaling toward 50% ocean protection by 2050, with coordinated international efforts creating vast transboundary reserves and migration corridors connecting protected areas across ocean basins.⁵⁷
Technological innovations are making previously impossible conservation achievements feasible. Autonomous underwater vehicles now operate for months collecting biodiversity data, with AI algorithms enabling real-time species identification across entire ocean regions.⁵⁸ Environmental DNA technology detects species presence from microscopic genetic material in water samples, providing early warning of ecosystem changes and invasive species.⁵⁹ These capabilities, combined with satellite monitoring and blockchain-based fisheries management, enable effective protection and monitoring at scales unimaginable just years ago.
Visionary leaders are demonstrating what’s possible when science, technology, and advocacy align. Sylvia Earle’s Mission Blue has designated over 50 Hope Spots globally as conservation priorities, creating a network of critical areas that could anchor expanded protection.⁶⁰ Enric Sala’s Pristine Seas research proves that marine protection generates greater economic value than extraction, with “fish banks” providing sustainable benefits to communities.⁶¹ These initiatives, supported by unprecedented youth engagement through organizations like Heirs To Our Ocean and UN Ocean Decade Youth Advisory Councils, are building momentum for protection targets that match ecological necessity rather than political compromise.⁶²
The integration of restoration with protection multiplies conservation impact. Coral Vita’s land-based farming grows climate-resilient corals for large-scale reef restoration, while the Mars Coral Restoration System has planted hundreds of thousands of corals using innovative techniques.⁶³ Seagrass restoration programs capitalize on these ecosystems’ ability to sequester carbon 35 times faster than rainforests, while kelp forest restoration combines carbon capture with biodiversity recovery.⁶⁴ These restoration technologies, including 3D-printed reef structures and assisted evolution programs, demonstrate that we can not only protect but actively restore ocean ecosystems.⁶⁵
Conclusion
The evidence for dramatically expanding marine parks is overwhelming and multifaceted. Ocean degradation has reached crisis levels that threaten food security, climate stability, and biodiversity, yet we possess proven solutions that deliver extraordinary ecological and economic benefits. Marine protected areas increase fish biomass by 670%, generate $5.40 for every dollar invested, and provide essential climate mitigation through blue carbon sequestration. The Kunming-Montreal Framework’s 30% target represents a critical minimum, not an endpoint, with scientific evidence supporting eventual protection of half the ocean for ecosystem integrity. Implementation pathways exist through innovative financing, indigenous partnerships, and technological solutions that make large-scale protection both feasible and economically advantageous. The convergence of political momentum, scientific consensus, technological capability, and economic incentive creates an unprecedented opportunity to reverse ocean degradation through rapid marine park expansion. The question is not whether we can afford to protect 30% or even 50% of the ocean—it is whether we can afford not to.
Notes
¹ CleanHub, “How Much Plastic is in the Ocean in 2024?” CleanHub Blog, accessed August 9, 2025, https://blog.cleanhub.com/how-much-plastic-in-the-ocean.
² United Nations, “Oceans – United Nations Sustainable Development,” UN Sustainable Development Goals, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/.
³ Center for Biological Diversity, “Ocean Plastics Pollution,” Biological Diversity Campaigns, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/ocean_plastics/.
⁴ Surfers Against Sewage, “Plastic Pollution: Facts & Figures,” SAS UK Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.sas.org.uk/plastic-pollution/plastic-pollution-facts-figures/.
⁵ UNEP, “Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Plastic Pollution,” UN Environment Programme, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution.
⁶ Marine Stewardship Council, “Six Takeaways about the State of the World’s Fisheries,” MSC Research Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/science-and-research/six-takeaways-state-of-worlds-fisheries.
⁷ World Bank, “Oceans, Fisheries, and the Coastal Economies,” World Bank Topic Overview, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/oceans-fisheries-and-coastal-economies.
⁸ Global Fishing Watch, “The Overlooked Impact of Bottom Trawling,” Research Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://globalfishingwatch.org/research/the-overlooked-impact-of-bottom-trawling/.
⁹ National Geographic, “Bottom Trawling is Huge Source of Carbon Emissions, New Study Reveals,” Environment Article, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-bottom-trawling-fishing.
¹⁰ Geographical, “UK’s ‘Protected’ Marine Areas Hit by Over 20,000 Hours of Bottom Trawling in 2024,” News Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://geographical.co.uk/news/uks-protected-marine-areas-hit-by-over-20000-hours-of-bottom-trawling-in-2024.
¹¹ Inside Climate News, “Fifteen Years After Largest U.S. Offshore Oil Spill, Researchers Reveal Most-Polluting Rigs,” May 16, 2025, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16052025/researchers-reveal-most-polluting-oil-rigs/.
¹² Statista, “Key Global Offshore Drilling Companies’ Revenue 2023-2024,” Statistics Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.statista.com/statistics/326759/revenue-of-top-energy-services-and-equipment-offshore-drilling-companies-global/.
¹³ Oceana USA, “Dirty and Dangerous Offshore Drilling Pollutes Our Ocean and Coastal Communities,” Ocean Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://usa.oceana.org/blog/dirty-and-dangerous-offshore-drilling-pollutes-our-ocean-and-coastal-communities/.
¹⁴ WWF Arctic, “Deep Sea Mining,” Threats Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.arcticwwf.org/threats/deep-sea-mining/.
¹⁵ Greenpeace UK, “Deep Sea Mining – What You Need to Know,” Challenges Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/challenges/deep-sea-mining/.
¹⁶ Ibid.
¹⁷ Convention on Biological Diversity, “COP15: Nations Adopt Four Goals, 23 Targets for 2030 In Landmark UN Biodiversity Agreement,” CBD Press Release, December 19, 2022, https://www.cbd.int/article/cop15-cbd-press-release-final-19dec2022.
¹⁸ Convention on Biological Diversity, “COP15: Final Text of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,” CBD Official Document, December 22, 2022, https://www.cbd.int/article/cop15-final-text-kunming-montreal-gbf-221222.
¹⁹ UNCTAD, “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,” UN Trade and Development Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://unctad.org/topic/trade-and-environment/biotrade/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework.
²⁰ UNEP, “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,” UN Environment Programme Resources, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.unep.org/resources/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework.
²¹ Bloomberg Philanthropies, “Just 2.8% of the World’s Ocean is Protected ‘Effectively’,” Press Release, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.bloomberg.org/press/just-2-8-of-the-worlds-ocean-is-protected-effectively/.
²² Marine Conservation Institute, “How Much of Our Ocean Is Protected?” Ocean Protection Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://marine-conservation.org/on-the-tide/how-much-of-our-ocean-is-protected/.
²³ Mongabay, “Marine Protection Efforts in 2024 Were Still a Drop in the Ocean,” News Article, accessed August 9, 2025, https://news.mongabay.com/short-article/marine-protection-efforts-in-2024-were-still-a-drop-in-the-ocean/.
²⁴ ZME Science, “Marine Protection Efforts in 2024 Were Still a Drop in the Ocean,” Oceanography Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.zmescience.com/science/oceanography/marine-protection-efforts-in-2024-were-still-a-drop-in-the-ocean/.
²⁵ DCCEEW, “A New Global Biodiversity Framework: Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,” Australian Government Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity/global-biodiversity-framework.
²⁶ The Earthshot Prize, “High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People – Earthshot Prize Winner 2024,” Winners Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://earthshotprize.org/winners-finalists/high-ambition-coalition-for-nature-and-people/.
²⁷ World Resources Institute, “RELEASE: High Ambition Coalition for Nature & People Wins 2024 Earthshot Prize,” WRI News, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.wri.org/news/release-high-ambition-coalition-nature-people-wins-2024-earthshot-prize.
²⁸ Wikipedia, “30 by 30,” Encyclopedia Entry, accessed August 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_by_30.
²⁹ Graham J. Edgar et al., “Global Conservation Outcomes Depend on Marine Protected Areas with Five Key Features,” Nature 506 (February 2014): 216-220, https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13022.
³⁰ Enric Sala and Sylvaine Giakoumi, “No-Take Marine Reserves Are the Most Effective Protected Areas in the Ocean,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 75, no. 3 (2018): 1166-1168, https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/75/3/1166/4098821.
³¹ Smithsonian Ocean, “Cabo Pulmo Protected Area,” Conservation Success Stories, accessed August 9, 2025, https://ocean.si.edu/conservation/solutions-success-stories/cabo-pulmo-protected-area.
³² Greenpeace International, “Cabo Pulmo, an Ocean Success Story for People and Wildlife,” International Story, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/44377/cabo-pulmo-ocean-success/.
³³ Reef Authority, “20 Years of Building Resilience in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park,” GBRMPA News, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www2.gbrmpa.gov.au/news/20-years-building-resilience-great-barrier-reef-marine-park.
³⁴ Garry R. Russ et al., “Adaptive Management of the Great Barrier Reef: A Globally Significant Demonstration of the Benefits of Networks of Marine Reserves,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 43 (2010): 18278-18285, https://www.pnas.org/content/107/43/18278.
³⁵ NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, “Blue Carbon in Marine Protected Areas: Part 2 A Blue Carbon Assessment of Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary,” Conservation Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/conservation/blue-carbon-in-marine-protected-areas-part-2.html.
³⁶ UNESCO, “Blue Carbon and UNESCO Marine World Heritage,” World Heritage Centre Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://whc.unesco.org/en/blue-carbon-report.
³⁷ C. Olguín-Jacobson et al., “Recovery Mode: Marine Protected Areas Enhance Climate Resilience of Invertebrate Species to Marine Heatwaves,” Functional Ecology 39, no. 1 (2025): 70-85, https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.70060.
³⁸ Edgar et al., “Global Conservation Outcomes,” 218-219.
³⁹ Elisabeth M.A. Strain et al., “A Global Assessment of the Direct and Indirect Benefits of Marine Protected Areas for Coral Reef Conservation,” Diversity and Distributions 25, no. 1 (2019): 838-845, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ddi.12838.
⁴⁰ For the Ocean, “New Report Warns of $14.6 Billion Ocean Protection Shortfall,” News Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://for-the-ocean.org/news/ocean-protection-gap-report/.
⁴¹ Commonwealth, “Case Study: Innovative Financing – Debt for Conservation Swap, Seychelles’ Conservation and Climate Adaptation Trust and the Blue Bonds Plan,” Case Study Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://thecommonwealth.org/case-study/case-study-innovative-financing-debt-conservation-swap-seychelles-conservation-and.
⁴² The Nature Conservancy, “Blue Bonds: An Audacious Plan to Save the World’s Oceans,” Perspectives Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/an-audacious-plan-to-save-the-worlds-oceans/.
⁴³ The Nature Conservancy, “Nature Bonds: Unlocking Funds for Conservation and Climate Action,” Land and Water Stories, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/protect-water-and-land/land-and-water-stories/nature-bonds/.
⁴⁴ International Finance Corporation, “Blue Finance Safeguarding Marine Ecosystems, the Climate, and Livelihoods,” IFC Stories, 2022, https://www.ifc.org/en/stories/2022/blue-finance-marine-ecosystems-climate-livelihoods.
⁴⁵ Junjie Zhang et al., “Implementing the Debt-for-Nature Swaps for Marine Protected Areas: Case Studies from Seychelles and Belize,” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 11 (2024): 285, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-02855-3.
⁴⁶ GOV.UK, “The Blue Belt Programme,” Government Guidance, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-blue-belt-programme.
⁴⁷ The Conversation, “We Tracked Illegal Fishing in Marine Protected Areas – Satellites and AI Show Most Bans Are Respected, and Could Help Enforce Future Ones,” Research Article, accessed August 9, 2025, https://theconversation.com/we-tracked-illegal-fishing-in-marine-protected-areas-satellites-and-ai-show-most-bans-are-respected-and-could-help-enforce-future-ones-252800.
⁴⁸ Marine Conservation Institute, “Reviving Communities of Beings: The Interwoven History and Future of Indigenous Marine Conservation,” On the Tide Blog, accessed August 9, 2025, https://marine-conservation.org/on-the-tide/reviving-communities-of-beings-indigenous-marine-conservation/.
⁴⁹ Ibid.
⁵⁰ Ibid.
⁵¹ GOV.UK, “England’s Marine Life Protected With Blue Belt Expansion,” Government News, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/englands-marine-life-protected-with-blue-belt-expansion.
⁵² Bezos Earth Fund, “Supporting 30×30 – the Boldest Conservation Idea Ever Proposed,” News and Insights, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.bezosearthfund.org/news-and-insights/supporting-the-boldest-conservation-idea-ever-proposed.
⁵³ For the Ocean, “New Report Warns of $14.6 Billion Ocean Protection Shortfall.”
⁵⁴ Sumaila, U. Rashid et al., “Financing a Sustainable Ocean Economy,” Nature Communications 12 (2021): 3259, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23168-y.
⁵⁵ Nature Needs Half, “Why 50%,” NNH Foundation, accessed August 9, 2025, https://natureneedshalf.org/why-50/.
⁵⁶ UN News, “Beyond Borders: Why New ‘High Seas’ Treaty is Critical for the World,” UN Story, June 19, 2023, https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/06/1137857.
⁵⁷ High Seas Alliance, “High Seas Treaty & Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ),” Treaty Negotiations, accessed August 9, 2025, https://highseasalliance.org/treaty-negotiations/.
⁵⁸ Frontiers, “In situ Autonomous Acquisition and Preservation of Marine Environmental DNA Using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle,” Frontiers in Marine Science 6 (2019): 373, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2019.00373/full.
⁵⁹ Tech Explorist, “Scientists are Using Autonomous Underwater Robots to Sample eDNA,” Technology News, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.techexplorist.com/scientists-using-autonomous-underwater-robots-sample-edna/47523/.
⁶⁰ Mission Blue, “Mission Blue: Sylvia Earle’s Quest to Save the Ocean,” About Mission Blue, accessed August 9, 2025, https://missionblue.org/2012/08/mission-blue-sylvia-earles-quest-to-save-the-ocean/.
⁶¹ Enric Sala, Pristine Seas: Journeys to the Ocean’s Last Wild Places (Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2015), 89-112.
⁶² Ocean Decade, “Meet Heirs To Our Ocean, a Youth-Led Organization Protecting the Most Important Resource for Future Generations,” Ocean Decade News, accessed August 9, 2025, https://oceandecade.org/news/meet-heirs-to-our-ocean-a-youth-led-organization-protecting-the-most-important-resource-for-future-generations/.
⁶³ Coral Vita, “Innovative Coral Reef Restoration for a Sustainable Future,” Company Homepage, accessed August 9, 2025, https://coralvita.co/.
⁶⁴ National Climate Assessment, “Fifth National Climate Assessment, Focus on Blue Carbon,” Global Change Report, accessed August 9, 2025, https://nca2023.globalchange.gov/chapter/focus-on-5/.
⁶⁵ ReefGen, “Coral Restoration Technology,” Company Homepage, accessed August 9, 2025, https://www.reefgen.io/.
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