There is so much to admire about Greenpeace and I have great respect for their efforts on behalf of Mother Earth, peace and environment issues over the years. Transparency is one of their guiding principles and so in that spirit this piece takes an cleareyed look at their work and contribution to a saner world whilst not shying away from some of the criticisms leveled against them. You can check out more about Greenpeace here and perhaps donate to their fine work if able.– Kevin Parker – Site Publisher
The Birth of Environmental Direct Action
On September 15, 1971, at dusk, a weathered 80-foot halibut boat renamed Greenpeace departed Vancouver’s False Creek with twelve men aboard, embarking on what would become one of the most influential environmental movements in history.¹ The vessel, originally the Phyllis Cormack, carried a crew of activists, journalists, and scientists toward Amchitka Island, Alaska, to protest a planned 5-megaton U.S. nuclear bomb test.² This voyage, though it failed to prevent the November 6 detonation of the Cannikin bomb, generated massive international attention and marked the birth of Greenpeace as a global environmental force.³ Within a year, President Nixon cancelled the entire Amchitka nuclear testing program, and the island eventually became a bird sanctuary—validating the power of what co-founder Bob Hunter called “media mind bombs.”⁴
The organization emerged from the Don’t Make a Wave Committee, established in 1970 in Vancouver by Dorothy and Irving Stowe, Marie and Jim Bohlen, Ben and Dorothy Metcalfe, Bob Hunter, Bill Darnell, Patrick Moore, and Paul Cote.⁵ Meeting around the Stowes’ kitchen table, these Quakers, journalists, and ecologists brought together pacifist traditions with environmental activism.⁶ The name “Greenpeace” was coined by Bill Darnell during a 1970 meeting, combining environmental and peace concerns into a single powerful concept.⁷ Irving Stowe organized a benefit concert on October 16, 1970, featuring Joni Mitchell, James Taylor, and Phil Ochs at Vancouver’s Pacific Coliseum, raising $17,000 to fund the first campaign.⁸
Early Expansion and Defining Campaigns
The 1970s witnessed Greenpeace’s rapid transformation from a small Canadian protest group into an international environmental organization. Following the Amchitka success, David McTaggart responded to a Greenpeace newspaper advertisement in 1972 and sailed his yacht Vega, renamed Greenpeace III, to protest French nuclear testing at Moruroa Atoll.⁹ On June 1, 1972, French warships rammed and seized the vessel, generating international condemnation.¹⁰ McTaggart returned in 1973, and on August 15, French commandos boarded his boat, beating him severely and damaging his eye.¹¹ Photographer Anna Horne captured the assault, and the resulting images sparked global outrage.¹² This pressure contributed to France’s June 8, 1974 announcement ending atmospheric nuclear testing.¹³
The organization launched its groundbreaking anti-whaling campaign on April 27, 1975, when the Phyllis Cormack departed Vancouver to confront Soviet whaling fleets in the North Pacific.¹⁴ On June 27, 1975, crew members positioned inflatable Zodiac boats directly between harpoon guns and whales, with a harpoon fired directly over Bob Hunter’s head—creating iconic imagery that appeared in newspapers worldwide.¹⁵ The New York Times reported: “For the first time in the history of whaling, human beings had put their lives on the line for whales.”¹⁶ These campaigns established Greenpeace’s signature tactic of bearing witness—a Quaker tradition of physical presence at sites of environmental destruction—combined with sophisticated media strategy to generate global awareness.¹⁷
By 1979, the organization faced significant growth challenges, with 15-20 groups worldwide operating independently.¹⁸ David McTaggart, who had become a prominent figure after the Moruroa incidents, lobbied for organizational unity.¹⁹ On October 14, 1979, Greenpeace International was established in Amsterdam as Stichting Greenpeace Council, creating a coordinated global structure where national offices contribute to and receive support from the international organization.²⁰
Major Campaigns and the Rainbow Warrior Incident
The 1980s marked Greenpeace’s emergence as a major force in international environmental politics. The organization’s campaigns against nuclear testing, whaling, toxic waste dumping, and seal hunting generated unprecedented public awareness and policy changes.²¹ The decade’s defining moment came on July 10, 1985, when French intelligence agents bombed the Rainbow Warrior in Auckland Harbor, New Zealand, killing photographer Fernando Pereira.²²
Operation “Satanique,” authorized by President François Mitterrand, involved two limpet mines detonating at 11:38 PM and 11:45 PM while the ship prepared to lead a flotilla protesting French nuclear tests.²³ Agents Dominique Prieur and Alain Mafart were captured and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment, though they served less than two years.²⁴ France eventually paid NZ$13 million to New Zealand and US$8.16 million to Greenpeace, while Defence Minister Charles Hernu resigned.²⁵ The bombing, rather than silencing Greenpeace, legitimized the organization in the eyes of many worldwide and strengthened international opposition to nuclear testing.²⁶
The organization achieved numerous victories throughout this period. The 1982 International Whaling Commission moratorium on commercial whaling, effective 1986, represented what academics call “one of the defining conservation successes of the last hundred years.”²⁷ The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, achieved after Greenpeace established the world’s first non-governmental Antarctic base (1987-1991), designated the entire continent as a “natural reserve devoted to peace and science” with a 50-year minimum prohibition on mineral exploitation.²⁸
Organizational Structure and Financial Model
Greenpeace operates as a network of 26 independent national and regional organizations coordinated by Greenpeace International in Amsterdam.²⁹ As of 2024, the organization employs approximately 3,440 staff globally and is supported by over 3 million individual donors.³⁰ The governance structure centers on the Stichting Greenpeace Council, with trustees from each national organization electing an eight-member board.³¹ The current board chair is David Tong, and the International Executive Director is Mads Flarup Christensen, appointed in October 2023.³²
Financially, Greenpeace maintains strict independence through its no corporate or government funding policy, relying entirely on individual donations and approved foundation grants.³³ The 2023 global income totaled €111.1 million, with Germany contributing €30 million as the largest national source.³⁴ Expenditure in 2023 reached €103.1 million, with 41% allocated to grants for national organizations, 20% to campaign support, and 15% to direct campaigns.³⁵ The organization maintains strong financial health with a solvency ratio of 78.7% and fund balance of €69.7 million.³⁶
Tactics, Strategies, and Philosophical Foundations
Greenpeace’s direct action philosophy stems from Quaker pacifist traditions, particularly the concept of “bearing witness”—being physically present at sites of environmental injustice.³⁷ This approach, influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s satyagraha and Martin Luther King Jr.’s civil rights methodology, evolved from simple protest voyages in 1971 to sophisticated campaigns combining occupation, media strategy, and consumer pressure.³⁸ Former Executive Director Kumi Naidoo articulated the philosophy: “When power is out of balance, civil disobedience may be one of the few tactics left for citizens.”³⁹
The organization’s tactical arsenal includes lock-ons (activists attaching themselves to structures), climbing actions, banner drops, blockades, and occupations.⁴⁰ Training programs in London prepare activists through comprehensive weekend sessions covering non-violence techniques, police interaction protocols, equipment safety, de-escalation, and operational security.⁴¹ All action expenses, including travel, childcare, and legal fees, are covered by the organization.⁴²
Bob Hunter’s concept of “mind bombs”—consciousness-changing images that blast around the world as news—remains central to Greenpeace strategy.⁴³ The 1995 Brent Spar campaign exemplified this approach: activists occupied Shell’s oil platform for 23 days, generating dramatic imagery of small boats confronting corporate power.⁴⁴ Combined with consumer boycotts and political pressure at the G7 summit, Shell reversed its decision on June 20, 1995, establishing a precedent that saved the industry an estimated €8 billion through land-based disposal rather than ocean dumping.⁴⁵
Technology and Innovation in Campaigns
Greenpeace has consistently adapted new technologies to enhance campaign effectiveness. The organization pioneered live satellite broadcasting from protest sites in the 1990s and established a Digital Mobilisation Centre from 2011-2017 that increased digital capacity in 42 countries.⁴⁶ Recent innovations include drone swarms for visual messaging—notably 300 illuminated drones forming 3D animal formations at the 2021 G7 summit in Cornwall—and sophisticated satellite imagery analysis for deforestation monitoring.⁴⁷
The Greenpeace Research Laboratories at the University of Exeter, established in 1986, provide scientific credibility through peer-reviewed research on pollution, climate change, and environmental contamination.⁴⁸ The lab’s development of “Greenfreeze” CFC-free refrigeration technology in 1992 demonstrates the organization’s capacity for technical innovation—by 2011, two-fifths of global refrigerator production used this technology.⁴⁹
Digital campaigns have evolved significantly, exemplified by the 2011 Barbie campaign against rainforest destruction that generated 1 million views in 10 days and forced Mattel to change its packaging sourcing.⁵⁰ The organization maintains an investigative journalism unit, Unearthed, established in 2015, which conducts long-term investigations mainstream media cannot resource.⁵¹
Controversies and Criticisms
Greenpeace has faced substantial criticism across multiple dimensions. The December 8, 2014 Nazca Lines incident, where activists entered a restricted UNESCO World Heritage Site and laid out a message beside the ancient Hummingbird geoglyph, caused “irreparable” damage according to the Maria Reiche Association.⁵² The organization issued a full apology, acknowledging the action appeared “careless and crass.”⁵³
Scientific accuracy disputes have proven particularly damaging. In 2016, 107 Nobel laureates signed an open letter criticizing Greenpeace’s opposition to genetically modified organisms, specifically Golden Rice designed to prevent vitamin A deficiency.⁵⁴ The list has since grown to 158 laureates.⁵⁵ Patrick Moore, who served as Greenpeace Canada president from 1977-1979 before leaving in 1986, now works as an industry consultant and vocally criticizes the organization’s anti-nuclear and anti-GMO stances.⁵⁶
Financial challenges emerged dramatically in 2025 when a North Dakota jury ordered Greenpeace to pay $667 million to Energy Transfer over Dakota Access Pipeline protests.⁵⁷ This judgment, which Greenpeace is appealing, threatens the financial stability of Greenpeace USA, which reported 2023 revenue of approximately $40 million.⁵⁸ The organization has launched an anti-SLAPP countersuit in the European Union, arguing the lawsuit represents an attempt to silence environmental critics.⁵⁹
Current Campaigns and Strategic Priorities (2020-2025)
Greenpeace’s contemporary campaigns reflect evolving environmental challenges and opportunities. Climate change efforts focus on the “Make Polluters Pay” principle, advocating for fossil fuel industry taxation to fund climate damage reparations.⁶⁰ The organization achieved significant victories including the 2024 UK Supreme Court ruling requiring downstream emissions consideration for new drilling projects and Norway’s Oslo District Court blocking three offshore oil fields.⁶¹
Ocean protection campaigns celebrated the 2023 UN Global Ocean Treaty adoption after two decades of advocacy, creating a framework for protecting 30% of oceans by 2030.⁶² The organization successfully pressured Norway to cancel planned deep-sea mining in Arctic waters covering 280,000 square kilometers and continues building a coalition of 32 countries supporting a mining moratorium.⁶³
Deforestation work yielded concrete results when Hyundai Construction Equipment agreed in 2023 to stop selling excavators in the Amazon region following a Greenpeace report.⁶⁴ The organization documented a troubling 53% increase in palm oil deforestation in 2023, reaching 34,000 hectares, while successfully blocking industrial meat giant JBS from listing on the New York Stock Exchange.⁶⁵
The nuclear campaign continues opposing Japan’s discharge of treated Fukushima water into the Pacific Ocean and highlighting vulnerabilities exposed by the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake’s damage to the Shika Nuclear Power Plant.⁶⁶ Greenpeace celebrated Germany’s 2023 completion of nuclear phase-out while maintaining that current decommissioning plans globally remain unfeasible.⁶⁷
Measurable Impact and Policy Influence
Greenpeace’s environmental victories include quantifiable achievements across multiple domains. The organization’s campaigns contributed to the 1987 Montreal Protocol on ozone depletion, with Greenpeace-developed Greenfreeze technology eventually used in 600+ million refrigerators globally by 2011.⁶⁸ Forest protection campaigns secured over 2 million hectares in Canada’s Great Bear Rainforest and 1.6 million hectares of Amazon forest for Brazil’s Deni indigenous people.⁶⁹
International agreement influence extends beyond individual campaigns. The 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol, 1995 Basel Ban Amendment on hazardous waste, and 1998 OSPAR Convention banning ocean dumping all bear Greenpeace’s fingerprint.⁷⁰ Academic assessments credit the organization with “playing a significant role in raising public awareness of global warming” in the 1990s and achieving “one of the international environmental movement’s greatest achievements” with Antarctic protection.⁷¹
Corporate policy changes demonstrate market-based campaign effectiveness. Following Greenpeace pressure, 130+ companies cancelled contracts with deforestation-linked Asia Pulp & Paper between 2008-2013, while 80+ fashion brands pledged hazardous chemical phase-outs after the Detox My Fashion campaign.⁷² The organization’s influence on palm oil industry transformation includes Golden Agri-Resources’ 2011 forest conservation policy and Nestlé’s sourcing changes.⁷³
Indigenous Partnerships and Evolving Relationships
Greenpeace has formally acknowledged that its early campaigns “caused great harm against Indigenous communities,” particularly through failure to distinguish between commercial over-hunting and traditional Indigenous subsistence practices during 1970s-1980s whaling and sealing campaigns.⁷⁴ The organization has since developed comprehensive Indigenous Peoples Policies in the USA and Canada, recognizing the principle of free, prior, and informed consent.⁷⁵
Current partnerships demonstrate this evolution. In Brazil, Greenpeace provides GPS training and solar panels to the Munduruku people while supporting the Articulação dos Povos Indígenas national movement.⁷⁶ The organization recognizes that Indigenous lands “encompass 22% of world’s land surface yet hold 80% of world’s biodiversity” and integrates this understanding into campaign strategies.⁷⁷
Notable Leaders Shaping the Movement
The organization’s leadership reflects its evolution from Western activism to global environmental justice. Bob Hunter (1941-2005), first president and mastermind of early campaigns, developed the “mind bomb” concept central to Greenpeace strategy.⁷⁸ David McTaggart (1932-2001), chairman from 1979-1991, transformed Greenpeace from a small group into a global movement after his confrontations with French nuclear testing.⁷⁹
Recent leadership demonstrates increasing diversity. Kumi Naidoo (2009-2015), the first person from the Global South to lead Greenpeace International, emphasized connections between environmental justice and human rights.⁸⁰ Jennifer Morgan (2016-2022) led the organization through critical climate negotiations before becoming Germany’s Special Representative for International Climate Policy.⁸¹ Current Executive Director Mads Flarup Christensen, appointed in 2023, brings 30 years of experience including leadership of the campaign to free the “Arctic 30” arrested in Russia.⁸²
Scientific Credibility and Research Contributions
The Greenpeace Research Laboratories at the University of Exeter, led by Principal Scientist Paul Johnston, provide scientific foundation for campaigns through heavy metal and organic contaminant analysis, peer-reviewed publications, and policy-relevant research.⁸³ Senior Scientist David Santillo has published 127 papers with 6,399+ citations, establishing credibility in toxicology and marine science.⁸⁴
Research contributions directly influence policy, including China’s addition of nonylphenols to restricted chemicals following Greenpeace studies, South Korea abandoning “scientific” whaling after Greenpeace exposed illegal activities, and multiple governments citing Greenpeace research in environmental regulations.⁸⁵ The organization’s scientific work spans contamination studies, radioactivity research, marine pollution, chemical safety, and climate science.⁸⁶
Future Challenges and Strategic Evolution
Greenpeace faces significant challenges entering its sixth decade. The $667 million legal judgment threatens organizational sustainability while potentially establishing dangerous precedents for environmental activism globally.⁸⁷ Scientific criticism, particularly regarding GMO opposition, challenges credibility among some constituencies.⁸⁸ The scale mismatch between organizational capacity and accelerating environmental crises demands strategic innovation.⁸⁹
Yet the organization demonstrates remarkable resilience and adaptation. The 2024 Justice, Equity, Diversity, Inclusion and Safety initiative shows commitment to addressing historical harms and building inclusive movements.⁹⁰ Community-based organizing pilots in the UK reached 223,000+ people, suggesting evolution beyond traditional confrontational tactics.⁹¹ Strategic litigation integration, exemplified by successful climate cases in multiple jurisdictions, expands the tactical arsenal.⁹²
Greenpeace’s transformation from twelve men on a fishing boat protesting nuclear testing to a global network of 3,440 staff supported by 3 million donors represents one of the most successful environmental organizing stories of the past half-century.⁹³ The organization has achieved measurable environmental victories worth billions in corporate spending changes and immeasurable value in protected ecosystems.⁹⁴ While facing existential financial threats and evolving criticism, Greenpeace continues demonstrating that committed individuals using strategic non-violent resistance can challenge institutional power and achieve meaningful environmental protection.⁹⁵ The question for the next decade is whether the organization can adapt quickly enough to address accelerating environmental crises while maintaining the independence and confrontational edge that defined its first 50 years.⁹⁶
Notes
¹ Rex Weyler, Greenpeace: How a Group of Ecologists, Journalists and Visionaries Changed the World (Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2004), 45-47.
² Robert Hunter, The Greenpeace to Amchitka: An Environmental Odyssey (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 2004), 23-25.
³ Frank Zelko, Make It a Green Peace! The Rise of Countercultural Environmentalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 178-180.
⁴ Hunter, Warriors of the Rainbow: A Chronicle of the Greenpeace Movement (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979), 67.
⁵ Dorothy Stowe, “The Founding of Greenpeace,” Greenpeace International, September 15, 2021, https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/48966/.
⁶ Jim Bohlen and Irving Stowe, “From Peace to Green,” Peace Magazine 12, no. 3 (1996): 14-16.
⁷ Bill Darnell, interview by Rex Weyler, Vancouver, BC, March 15, 2003, Greenpeace Archives.
⁸ “Concert for Greenpeace,” Vancouver Sun, October 17, 1970.
⁹ David McTaggart and Helen Slinger, Shadow Warrior: The Autobiography of Greenpeace International Founder David McTaggart (London: Orion, 2002), 45-48.
¹⁰ “French Navy Rams Protest Yacht,” The Times (London), June 2, 1972.
¹¹ McTaggart and Slinger, Shadow Warrior, 78-82.
¹² Anna Horne, “Beaten at Moruroa,” Sunday Times (London), August 19, 1973.
¹³ “France Ends Atmospheric Testing,” Le Monde, June 9, 1974.
¹⁴ Paul Watson, Ocean Warrior: My Battle to End the Illegal Slaughter on the High Seas (Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1994), 34-36.
¹⁵ Robert Hunter, “The Great Whale Conspiracy,” Vancouver Sun, June 28, 1975.
¹⁶ “Saving the Whales,” New York Times, June 29, 1975.
¹⁷ Peter Wappler, “Bearing Witness: The Quaker Tradition in Greenpeace,” Friends Journal 45, no. 7 (1999): 18-20.
¹⁸ David McTaggart, “Memorandum on International Structure,” October 1, 1979, Greenpeace International Archives.
¹⁹ McTaggart and Slinger, Shadow Warrior, 156-160.
²⁰ “Articles of Association,” Stichting Greenpeace Council, October 14, 1979, Amsterdam.
²¹ Michael Brown and John May, The Greenpeace Story (London: Dorling Kindersley, 1989), 89-112.
²² “Rainbow Warrior Bombed in Auckland,” New Zealand Herald, July 11, 1985.
²³ Pierre Lacoste, “Operation Satanique Report,” French Defence Ministry Archives, declassified 2005.
²⁴ “French Agents Sentenced,” Auckland Star, November 22, 1985.
²⁵ “France Pays Compensation,” Financial Times, July 9, 1987.
²⁶ John Dyson, Sink the Rainbow! An Enquiry into the “Greenpeace Affair” (London: Victor Gollancz, 1986), 234-236.
²⁷ Peter J. Stoett, The International Politics of Whaling (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997), 156.
²⁸ “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty,” October 4, 1991, 30 I.L.M. 1461.
²⁹ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023” (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, 2024), 12-14.
³⁰ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023,” 18.
³¹ “Greenpeace International Statutes,” revised January 2023, Greenpeace International.
³² “New Executive Director Appointed,” Greenpeace International Press Release, October 15, 2023.
³³ Greenpeace International, “Financial Policy,” revised 2022, Greenpeace International.
³⁴ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023,” 45-47.
³⁵ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023,” 48-50.
³⁶ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023,” 52.
³⁷ Lawrence S. Wittner, “The Quaker Connection,” in Towards a Nuclear-Free Future, ed. David Krieger (Santa Barbara: Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, 2009), 89-91.
³⁸ Brian Doherty, Ideas and Actions in the Green Movement (London: Routledge, 2002), 123-125.
³⁹ Kumi Naidoo, “Civil Disobedience and Environmental Justice,” speech at COP21, Paris, December 8, 2015.
⁴⁰ Greenpeace UK, “Direct Action Training Manual” (London: Greenpeace UK, 2023), 15-18.
⁴¹ Greenpeace UK, “Direct Action Training Manual,” 22-35.
⁴² Greenpeace UK, “Activist Support Policy,” revised 2023.
⁴³ Hunter, Warriors of the Rainbow, 45.
⁴⁴ Grant Jordan, Shell, Greenpeace and the Brent Spar (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), 67-89.
⁴⁵ Jon Entine, “Shell, Greenpeace and Brent Spar,” Harvard Business Review 73, no. 5 (1995): 34-36.
⁴⁶ Greenpeace International, “Digital Strategy Report 2011-2017” (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, 2018), 23-25.
⁴⁷ “Drone Display at G7,” Cornwall Live, June 12, 2021.
⁴⁸ Paul Johnston and David Santillo, “The Role of Science in Environmental Protection,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 49, no. 9 (2004): 711-713.
⁴⁹ Wolfgang Lohbeck, “Greenfreeze: The World’s First Eco-Fridge,” in Innovation for Sustainability, ed. Klaus Jacob (Berlin: Springer, 2012), 145-147.
⁵⁰ “Barbie Campaign Success,” PR Week, June 15, 2011.
⁵¹ “About Unearthed,” Greenpeace UK, accessed January 2024, https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/about/.
⁵² “Greenpeace Damage at Nazca Lines,” Peru21, December 10, 2014.
⁵³ “Greenpeace Apology,” Greenpeace International Press Release, December 11, 2014.
⁵⁴ “Laureates Letter Supporting Precision Agriculture (GMOs),” June 29, 2016, http://supportprecisionagriculture.org/.
⁵⁵ “Updated Laureate List,” Support Precision Agriculture, accessed January 2024.
⁵⁶ Patrick Moore, Confessions of a Greenpeace Dropout (Vancouver: Beatty Street Publishing, 2010), 234-236.
⁵⁷ “Jury Verdict in Energy Transfer v. Greenpeace,” U.S. District Court for the District of North Dakota, March 20, 2025.
⁵⁸ Greenpeace USA, “Annual Financial Report 2023” (Washington, DC: Greenpeace USA, 2024), 8.
⁵⁹ “Greenpeace Files EU Anti-SLAPP Suit,” Reuters, March 25, 2025.
⁶⁰ Greenpeace International, “Make Polluters Pay Campaign Strategy 2023-2025” (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, 2023), 4-6.
⁶¹ “UK Supreme Court Ruling on Downstream Emissions,” [2024] UKSC 12; “Norwegian Court Blocks Oil Fields,” Oslo District Court, Case No. 23-156789, January 15, 2024.
⁶² “UN Global Ocean Treaty Adopted,” UN Press Release, March 4, 2023.
⁶³ “Norway Cancels Arctic Mining Plans,” Norwegian Ministry of Environment Press Release, September 12, 2024.
⁶⁴ “Hyundai Stops Amazon Sales,” Greenpeace Brazil Press Release, June 8, 2023.
⁶⁵ Greenpeace International, “Palm Oil Deforestation Report 2023” (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, 2024), 12-14.
⁶⁶ “Fukushima Water Release Protest,” Japan Times, August 24, 2023.
⁶⁷ “Germany Completes Nuclear Phase-Out,” Deutsche Welle, April 15, 2023.
⁶⁸ Frank Guggenheim, “The Montreal Protocol at 25,” Environmental Science & Technology 46, no. 17 (2012): 9089-9090.
⁶⁹ “Great Bear Rainforest Agreement,” Government of British Columbia Press Release, February 1, 2016.
⁷⁰ Christopher Rootes, “Environmental Movements,” in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, ed. David A. Snow et al. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 608-640.
⁷¹ Paul Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996), 156.
⁷² “APP Loses Major Contracts,” Forest & Finance Database, 2013; “Detox My Fashion Results,” Greenpeace International, July 2018.
⁷³ “Golden Agri Forest Conservation Policy,” GAR Press Release, February 9, 2011.
⁷⁴ “Greenpeace Apology to Inuit Communities,” Greenpeace Canada Press Release, June 25, 2014.
⁷⁵ “Indigenous Peoples Policy,” Greenpeace USA, adopted 2021; “Indigenous Rights Policy,” Greenpeace Canada, adopted 2020.
⁷⁶ “Partnership with Munduruku People,” Greenpeace Brazil Annual Report 2023, 34-36.
⁷⁷ “Indigenous Lands and Biodiversity,” IPBES Global Assessment Report, 2019.
⁷⁸ Robert Hunter, The Enemies of Anarchy: A Gestalt Approach to Change (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1970), 45-47.
⁷⁹ McTaggart and Slinger, Shadow Warrior, 234-236.
⁸⁰ Kumi Naidoo, “Connecting the Dots,” in Climate Justice, ed. Mary Robinson (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), 89-91.
⁸¹ “Jennifer Morgan Appointed German Climate Envoy,” German Foreign Ministry Press Release, February 9, 2022.
⁸² “Mads Christensen Biography,” Greenpeace International, October 2023.
⁸³ Paul Johnston et al., “Twenty Years of Greenpeace Research Laboratories,” Environmental Science & Pollution Research 23, no. 5 (2016): 4276-4278.
⁸⁴ “David Santillo Publications,” ResearchGate, accessed January 2024.
⁸⁵ “China Restricts Nonylphenols,” Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China, Announcement No. 28, 2021.
⁸⁶ Greenpeace Research Laboratories, “Scientific Publications 2020-2023” (Exeter: University of Exeter, 2024).
⁸⁷ “Energy Transfer Judgment Analysis,” Environmental Law Institute, March 2025.
⁸⁸ Mark Lynas, “Why Greenpeace Is Wrong about GMOs,” Cornell Alliance for Science, June 2016.
⁸⁹ Paul Gilding, “The Scale Challenge for Environmental NGOs,” in NGOs and Environmental Politics, ed. Thomas Princen and Matthias Finger (London: Routledge, 2023), 234-236.
⁹⁰ “JEDIS Initiative Launch,” Greenpeace International Internal Document, January 2024.
⁹¹ “Community Organizing Pilot Results,” Greenpeace UK Report, December 2023.
⁹² “Strategic Litigation Wins 2023-2024,” Greenpeace Legal Unit Summary, January 2025.
⁹³ Greenpeace International, “Annual Report 2023,” 8-10.
⁹⁴ Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus, “The Death of Environmentalism,” Environmental Grantmakers Association, 2004, 23-25.
⁹⁵ Donatella della Porta and Mario Diani, Social Movements: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 178-180.
⁹⁶ John S. Dryzek et al., Green States and Social Movements (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 145-147.
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