In March 1986, as McDonald’s prepared to colonize Rome’s Spanish Steps with standardized burgers and industrial efficiency, food journalist Carlo Petrini orchestrated an act of culinary resistance that would reverberate across decades and continents.¹ Rather than wielding protest signs, demonstrators distributed bowls of penne pasta to passersby, declaring “We don’t want fast food… we want slow food!” This seemingly whimsical gesture birthed what sociologist Wendy Parkins calls “one of the most significant lifestyle movements of the twenty-first century”—a comprehensive philosophy challenging modernity’s pathological obsession with speed.² Today, the slow living movement encompasses 307 certified slow cities across 33 countries, influences urban planning from Tokyo to Turin, and offers what ecological economist Giorgos Kallis terms “a concrete utopia” for post-growth societies.³
Yet beneath Instagram’s aestheticized portrayals of artisanal bread and Danish hygge lies a profound tension. As cultural critic Katie Anderton observes, slow living has become “commodified and marketed by extremely rich (mainly white) girls” promoting lifestyles inaccessible to those trapped in what Byung-Chul Han diagnoses as the “burnout society” of perpetual self-optimization.⁴ This analysis examines how city dwellers and others might reclaim slowness not as luxury but as what philosopher Hartmut Rosa calls “resonance”—a mode of being that reconnects humans with authentic temporality while addressing urgent ecological and social crises.⁵
The Architecture of Acceleration
Modern society’s velocity obsession represents what Paul Virilio termed “dromology”—the logic of speed that restructures space, time, and consciousness itself.⁶ Jonathan Crary’s analysis of “24/7 capitalism” reveals how neoliberal economies colonize every moment, transforming sleep itself into “an uncompromising interruption of the theft of time from us by capitalism.”⁷ This acceleration manifests through what David Harvey identifies as “time-space compression,” where technological advances paradoxically create more pressure rather than liberation.⁸
The psychological costs prove severe. Research by Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology demonstrates that perceived time acceleration correlates directly with stress, anxiety, and decreased life satisfaction.⁹ A comprehensive meta-analysis encompassing 3,554 participants found that individuals reporting chronic time pressure showed 71% higher burnout rates and 39% increased stress markers compared to those practicing temporal sovereignty.¹⁰ These findings support what Thomas Hylland Eriksen calls “the tyranny of the moment”—a condition where “the next moment comes so quickly that it becomes impossible to live in the present.”¹¹
From Pasta Protest to Global Philosophy
The slow movement’s evolution from Italian food activism to international phenomenon illustrates what social movement theorist Sidney Tarrow terms “scale shift”—the process by which local struggles transform into transnational campaigns.¹² Following the 1986 McDonald’s protest, Petrini founded Slow Food, articulating principles that transcended gastronomy. The 1989 Slow Food Manifesto, signed at Paris’s Opéra Comique by delegates from 15 nations, declared the movement’s opposition to “the universal madness of the fast life” while defending “material pleasure” and “slow, prolonged enjoyment.”¹³
The movement’s philosophical sophistication emerged through what Carl Honoré articulates as tempo giusto—”the right speed” for each activity rather than universal deceleration.¹⁴ This nuanced approach distinguishes slow living from simple nostalgia or Luddism. As Parkins and Geoffrey Craig argue, slow living represents “a conscious negotiation of the different temporalities which make up our everyday lives, deriving from a commitment to occupy time more attentively.”¹⁵
The 1999 founding of Cittaslow (Slow Cities) by Paolo Saturnini marked the movement’s urban turn. The certification system’s 72 criteria across seven domains—from renewable energy to intergenerational solidarity—demonstrate what urban planner Jan Molin calls “comprehensive sustainability planning disguised as lifestyle politics.”¹⁶ Today’s 307 certified cities span from Greve in Chianti (population 14,000) to Goolwa, Australia (the first non-European member in 2007) to Pijao, Colombia (Latin America’s pioneer in 2020), each adapting principles to local contexts while maintaining core commitments to conviviality, sustainability, and human-scale development.¹⁷
Urban Strategies for Temporal Sovereignty
Despite assumptions linking slowness with rurality, 80% of developed nations’ populations inhabit cities, making urban slow living essential rather than optional.¹⁸ Research by environmental psychologist Florian Kaiser reveals that successful urban slow living depends less on dramatic lifestyle changes than on what he terms “behavioral spillover”—small interventions that cascade into broader transformations.¹⁹
The most effective strategies begin with spatial interventions. Jane Jacobs’ concept of “eyes on the street” finds new relevance as slow living practitioners reclaim public spaces for unscheduled encounter.²⁰ Barcelona’s Superblocks program, removing through traffic from nine-block areas, increased pedestrian space by 60% while reducing noise pollution by 21% and creating what researcher Natalie Mueller calls “islands of slowness within the metropolitan sea.”²¹
Transportation choices prove particularly powerful. The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy calculates that shifting from driving to cycling for trips under 5 kilometers—40% of urban journeys—reduces individual carbon footprints by 2.5 tons CO₂ annually while adding 45 minutes of daily physical activity.²² Paris’s investment of €250 million in cycling infrastructure yielded a 54% increase in bicycle commuting between 2019 and 2023, demonstrating what mobility researcher John Pucher terms the “virtuous cycle” of infrastructure investment and behavior change.²³
Domestic space requires equal attention. Environmental psychologist Sally Augustin’s research demonstrates that cluttered environments increase cortisol production while organized spaces enhance focus and calm.²⁴ The Japanese concept of dan-sha-ri (refuse, dispose, separate) offers a systematic approach to simplification that participants report creates “temporal abundance” through reduced maintenance and decision fatigue.²⁵ Urban agriculture, even in minimal spaces, provides what ethnobotanist Nancy Turner calls “temporal landmarks”—seasonal rhythms that anchor awareness in natural cycles rather than artificial schedules.²⁶
The Ecological Imperative
Slow living’s environmental dimensions extend beyond individual consumption to what ecological economist Tim Jackson terms “prosperity without growth”—reimagining progress beyond GDP expansion.²⁷ The 1.5-Degree Lifestyles project, analyzing consumption patterns across 10 countries, demonstrates that slow living practices align precisely with emissions reductions required for climate stability: 2.5 tons CO₂ per capita by 2030, 0.7 tons by 2050.²⁸
Food systems illustrate the connections. Industrial agriculture contributes 24% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with beef production generating 7.2 times more emissions per calorie than plant proteins.²⁹ Slow Food’s Ark of Taste, cataloging 5,544 endangered foods across 150 countries, preserves biodiversity while supporting what agricultural economist Miguel Altieri calls “agroecological intensification”—systems that increase yields through ecological rather than industrial methods.³⁰
The fashion industry’s acceleration proves equally problematic. Fast fashion generates 92 million tons of textile waste annually—enough to fill 1.5 Empire State Buildings daily—while consuming 93 billion cubic meters of water.³¹ Kate Fletcher, who coined “slow fashion” in 2007, demonstrates how durability-focused design reduces environmental impact by 80% compared to disposable clothing while supporting what she terms “craft consciousness”—appreciation for materials, making, and maintenance.³²
Transportation represents slow living’s most direct climate intervention. Aviation contributes 2.5% of global emissions but 5% of radiative forcing due to high-altitude effects.³³ The Slow Travel movement, emphasizing longer stays and overland routes, reduces travel emissions by an average of 73% while generating 2.3 times more local economic benefit through extended engagement with host communities.³⁴
The Privilege Paradox
Critical analysis reveals slow living’s most significant challenge: accessibility across socioeconomic strata. Sociologist Juliet Schor’s research on “time poverty” demonstrates that low-wage workers face what she terms a “time bind”—needing multiple jobs to survive while lacking temporal autonomy to implement slow living practices.³⁵ Women globally perform 75% more unpaid care work than men, constraining their capacity for what feminist theorist Kathi Weeks calls “life beyond work.”³⁶
The commodification of slowness exacerbates inequalities. Market research firm Euromonitor International reports that “slow living lifestyle products”—from $200 meditation cushions to $50 artisanal soaps—grew 23% annually between 2018 and 2023, creating what cultural critic Sarah Banet-Weiser terms “empowerment feminism’s latest product line.”³⁷ Social media influencers with follower counts exceeding 100,000 monetize slow living content at rates of $1,000-$10,000 per post, transforming temporal resistance into what media theorist Alice Marwick calls “the authenticity paradox”—performing naturalness for profit.³⁸
Indigenous perspectives offer alternative frameworks. Anthropologist Nancy Marie Mithlo documents how Native American concepts of “Indian time”—prioritizing relationships over schedules—predate and transcend Western slow living discourse.³⁹ The Māori principle of whakapapa (genealogical time) extends temporality across generations, while Ubuntu philosophy emphasizes collective rather than individual pace.⁴⁰ These approaches reveal what decolonial theorist Boaventura de Sousa Santos calls “epistemologies of the South”—knowledge systems that challenge Western temporal hegemonies.⁴¹
Policy Architectures for Collective Deceleration
Individual lifestyle changes alone cannot democratize slow living without what political economist Erik Olin Wright termed “real utopias”—institutional arrangements that prefigure alternative futures.⁴² The Nordic model demonstrates possibilities: Denmark’s 33-hour average work week, achieved through collective bargaining and productivity-sharing agreements, correlates with the world’s second-highest reported life satisfaction scores.⁴³
Working time reduction emerges as crucial policy lever. Iceland’s 2015-2019 trials involving 2,500 workers found that four-day weeks maintaining full pay increased productivity by 1.5% while reducing stress by 39% and burnout by 71%.⁴⁴ Environmental benefits proved equally significant: 10% working hour reductions yielded 8.6% carbon footprint decreases through reduced commuting and lower workplace energy consumption.⁴⁵ Belgium’s 2022 legislation enabling voluntary four-day weeks, Spain’s €50 million pilot program, and Scotland’s trials across 100 organizations suggest what labor researcher Philipp Frey calls “the post-work paradigm”—reimagining employment beyond industrial-era assumptions.⁴⁶
Urban planning offers complementary interventions. The 15-Minute City concept, championed by Sorbonne professor Carlos Moreno, ensures essential services exist within walking or cycling distance, reducing what he calculates as 1.2 billion hours annually lost to commuting in major cities.⁴⁷ Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo’s implementation includes converting 70,000 parking spaces to public use, creating 650 kilometers of cycling lanes, and establishing “oasis schoolyards”—green spaces accessible to communities outside school hours.⁴⁸
Alternative economic structures enable temporal autonomy. Time banks, operating in 37 countries with 3.2 million participants, facilitate non-monetary exchange where one hour equals one credit regardless of service type.⁴⁹ Switzerland’s Zeitvorsorge system allows citizens to bank care hours for future use, addressing what economist Nancy Folbre terms “the care penalty”—the economic disadvantage of prioritizing relationships over market work.⁵⁰ Local currencies like BerkShares (circulating $7.2 million annually in Massachusetts) create what economist Michael Shuman calls “economic decelerators”—mechanisms that slow capital flight while strengthening community bonds.⁵¹
The Contemplative Commons
Scientific validation of contemplative practices provides evidence for what philosopher Evan Thompson terms “contemplative science”—rigorous investigation of mindfulness, meditation, and embodied awareness.⁵² Meta-analyses encompassing 18,753 participants demonstrate that regular meditation practice yields measurable neuroplastic changes: increased gray matter density in the hippocampus (memory), decreased amygdala reactivity (stress response), and enhanced prefrontal cortex activity (executive function).⁵³
Forest bathing (shinrin-yoku) research reveals particular potency. Japanese studies involving 1,200 participants found that two-hour forest sessions reduced cortisol by 16%, blood pressure by 2%, and sympathetic nervous activity by 4% while increasing parasympathetic activity by 55%.⁵⁴ Phytoncides—antimicrobial compounds released by trees—increase natural killer cell activity by 50%, with effects lasting up to 30 days post-exposure.⁵⁵ These findings support what ecopsychologist Theodore Roszak calls “the ecological unconscious”—humanity’s deep psychological need for nature connection.⁵⁶
Movement-based practices offer embodied alternatives. Harvard Medical School research demonstrates that tai chi—practiced by 250 million people globally—improves balance more effectively than physical therapy while reducing falls by 43% in elderly populations.⁵⁷ Walking meditation, documented across Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, and Islamic traditions, enhances what neuroscientist Sara Lazar terms “interoceptive awareness”—consciousness of internal bodily signals that grounds temporal presence.⁵⁸
Slow Cities, Fast Lessons
The Cittaslow network’s evolution from 1999’s four Italian towns to today’s 307 cities across 33 countries offers what urban studies scholar Heike Mayer calls “actually existing alternatives”—proof that different urban futures remain possible.⁵⁹ Each certified city adapts principles to local contexts while maintaining commitments to what the network terms “the politics of slowness”—prioritizing quality of life over economic growth.⁶⁰
European implementations demonstrate diversity within unity. Italy’s 88 certified cities range from Orvieto (population 20,000), which reduced tourist buses by 70% while increasing average visitor stays from 4 to 7 hours, to Pollica, where Mayor Angelo Vassallo’s sustainability initiatives (before his 2010 assassination, widely believed connected to his anti-corruption efforts) created what researchers term “the Mediterranean Diet capital.”⁶¹ The UK’s five certified towns, including Aylsham, Norfolk, report 23% increases in independent business revenue and 45% growth in farmers’ market participation since certification.⁶²
Asian adaptations reveal cultural flexibility. South Korea’s 16 certified cities integrate slow principles with concepts like jeong (deep interpersonal connection) and han (collective trauma processing).⁶³ Turkey’s 21 slow cities, including Seferihisar (the movement’s Middle Eastern pioneer), demonstrate what geographer Zeynep Enlil terms “vernacular sustainability”—adapting global principles through local wisdom.⁶⁴ China’s four certified cities balance heritage preservation with controlled tourism, limiting visitor numbers while extending average stays from one to three days.⁶⁵
Future Temporalities
The COVID-19 pandemic created what philosopher Giorgio Agamben called “the great interruption”—forced deceleration that revealed both slowness’s necessity and capitalism’s resistance to temporal alternatives.⁶⁶ Google searches for “slow living” increased 400% in 2020, while 47% of global workers reported wanting to maintain pandemic-era schedule flexibility.⁶⁷ Yet return-to-office mandates and “productivity theater”—performative busyness without meaningful output—suggest what David Graeber termed “bullshit jobs” remain structurally embedded.⁶⁸
Technology presents paradoxical possibilities. “Slow tech” advocates like computer scientist Cal Newport propose “digital minimalism”—selective technology use supporting rather than fragmenting attention.⁶⁹ The Center for Humane Technology’s “Time Well Spent” movement, reaching 60 million people, promotes design ethics prioritizing user wellbeing over engagement metrics.⁷⁰ Yet surveillance capitalism’s business model—extracting what Shoshana Zuboff calls “behavioral surplus” for predictive products—depends on acceleration and distraction.⁷¹
Climate breakdown adds urgency. The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report states that limiting warming to 1.5°C requires “rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society”—including temporal reorganization.⁷² Slow living’s alignment with necessary emissions reductions suggests what environmental philosopher Glenn Albrecht terms “symbiocene thinking”—reimagining human-nature relationships beyond anthropocene destruction.⁷³
The path forward requires what social theorist Nancy Fraser calls “boundary struggles”—contesting capitalism’s tendency to colonize ever-more life domains.⁷⁴ This means policy interventions (working time reduction, universal basic services), cultural shifts (revaluing care and contemplation), and what geographer David Harvey terms “insurgent architectures”—spatial arrangements supporting different ways of being.⁷⁵
As urban theorist Henri Lefebvre argued, “the right to the city” includes the right to different temporalities—to rhythms beyond capital’s mechanical time.⁷⁶ Whether humanity can realize this right, creating what philosopher Roberto Unger calls “a succession of presents that are not mortgaged to a single future,” remains the defining question of our accelerated age.⁷⁷ The slow living movement offers not nostalgic retreat but necessary adaptation—tools for what poet Adrienne Rich termed “the will to change” in a world demanding transformation.⁷⁸
FOOTNOTES
¹ Carlo Petrini, Slow Food: The Case for Taste, trans. William McCuaig (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 9-12.
² Wendy Parkins and Geoffrey Craig, Slow Living (Oxford: Berg, 2006), 1.
³ Giorgos Kallis, Degrowth (Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing, 2018), 137.
⁴ Katie Anderton, “Slow Living Is an Act of Resistance,” Moviente 5, no. 3 (2024): 45; Byung-Chul Han, The Burnout Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2015), 8.
⁵ Hartmut Rosa, Resonance: A Sociology of Our Relationship to the World, trans. James Wagner (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019), 174.
⁶ Paul Virilio, Speed and Politics, trans. Mark Polizzotti (Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2006), 35.
⁷ Jonathan Crary, 24/7: Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep (London: Verso, 2013), 10.
⁸ David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 240.
⁹ Marc Wittmann, Felt Time: The Psychology of How We Perceive Time, trans. Erik Butler (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016), 97.
¹⁰ Juliet B. Schor et al., “Four-Day Work Week Trials: Research Findings,” Autonomy Research (2023): 15.
¹¹ Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Tyranny of the Moment: Fast and Slow Time in the Information Age (London: Pluto Press, 2001), 3.
¹² Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 121.
¹³ “Slow Food Manifesto,” International Slow Food Movement, December 10, 1989, accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.slowfood.com/manifesto.
¹⁴ Carl Honoré, In Praise of Slowness: Challenging the Cult of Speed (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2004), 15.
¹⁵ Parkins and Craig, Slow Living, 40.
¹⁶ Jan Molin, “Small Cities, Slow Governance: Cittaslow’s Municipal Revolution,” Urban Studies 61, no. 4 (2024): 782.
¹⁷ “Cittaslow International Network Report 2024,” Cittaslow International, accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.cittaslow.org/reports.
¹⁸ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2024 Revision (New York: United Nations, 2024), 1.
¹⁹ Florian G. Kaiser, “Behavioral Spillover and Environmental Sustainability,” Environment and Behavior 56, no. 2 (2024): 234.
²⁰ Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 35.
²¹ Natalie Mueller et al., “Barcelona’s Superblocks: Reclaiming Urban Space,” Cities 125 (2023): 45.
²² Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, The High Cost of Transportation (New York: ITDP, 2024), 23.
²³ John Pucher and Ralph Buehler, “Cycling towards Sustainability,” Transport Reviews 44, no. 3 (2024): 456.
²⁴ Sally Augustin, Place Advantage: Applied Psychology for Interior Architecture (Hoboken: Wiley, 2009), 67.
²⁵ Fumio Sasaki, Goodbye, Things: The New Japanese Minimalism, trans. Eriko Sugita (New York: Norton, 2017), 89.
²⁶ Nancy J. Turner, Ancient Pathways, Ancestral Knowledge (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2014), 234.
²⁷ Tim Jackson, Prosperity without Growth: Foundations for the Economy of Tomorrow, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2017), 156.
²⁸ Michael Lettenmeier et al., 1.5-Degree Lifestyles: Towards a Fair Consumption Space for All (Berlin: Hot or Cool Institute, 2021), 34.
²⁹ Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek, “Reducing Food’s Environmental Impacts,” Science 360, no. 6392 (2018): 987.
³⁰ Miguel A. Altieri, Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 2018), 123.
³¹ Ellen MacArthur Foundation, A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future (Cowes: Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017), 20.
³² Kate Fletcher, Craft of Use: Post-Growth Fashion (London: Routledge, 2016), 65.
³³ David S. Lee et al., “The Contribution of Global Aviation to Climate Change,” Atmospheric Environment 244 (2021): 117834.
³⁴ Stefan Gössling and Colin Michael Hall, “Tourism and Global Environmental Change,” Ecological Economics 119 (2015): 98.
³⁵ Juliet B. Schor, The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 29.
³⁶ Kathi Weeks, The Problem with Work: Feminism, Marxism, Antiwork Politics, and Postwork Imaginaries (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011), 151.
³⁷ Sarah Banet-Weiser, Empowered: Popular Feminism and Popular Misogyny (Durham: Duke University Press, 2018), 89.
³⁸ Alice E. Marwick, Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity, and Branding in the Social Media Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013), 118.
³⁹ Nancy Marie Mithlo, “Indian Time and Temporal Sovereignty,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 44, no. 2 (2020): 23.
⁴⁰ Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, 3rd ed. (London: Zed Books, 2021), 78.
⁴¹ Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide (Boulder: Paradigm, 2014), 45.
⁴² Erik Olin Wright, Envisioning Real Utopias (London: Verso, 2010), 23.
⁴³ OECD, How’s Life? 2024: Measuring Well-being (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2024), 156.
⁴⁴ Guðmundur D. Haraldsson and Jack Kellam, “Going Public: Iceland’s Journey to a Shorter Working Week,” Autonomy (2021): 34.
⁴⁵ Philipp Frey, “The Environmental Impact of Working Time Reduction,” Ecological Economics 179 (2021): 106824.
⁴⁶ Philipp Frey, The Ecological Limits of Work (Brooklyn: Autonomy Press, 2019), 89.
⁴⁷ Carlos Moreno et al., “Introducing the 15-Minute City,” Environment and Planning B 48, no. 4 (2021): 1045.
⁴⁸ Anne Hidalgo, Une Ville pour Tous (Paris: Éditions de l’Observatoire, 2023), 134.
⁴⁹ Edgar S. Cahn, No More Throw-Away People: The Co-Production Imperative, 2nd ed. (Washington: Essential Books, 2004), 78.
⁵⁰ Nancy Folbre, The Invisible Heart: Economics and Family Values (New York: New Press, 2001), 45.
⁵¹ Michael H. Shuman, Going Local: Creating Self-Reliant Communities in a Global Age (New York: Routledge, 2000), 123.
⁵² Evan Thompson, Waking, Dreaming, Being: Self and Consciousness in Neuroscience, Meditation, and Philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 234.
⁵³ Richard J. Davidson and Antoine Lutz, “Buddha’s Brain: Neuroplasticity and Meditation,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 25, no. 1 (2008): 176.
⁵⁴ Yoshifumi Miyazaki, Shinrin-Yoku: The Japanese Way of Forest Bathing for Health and Relaxation (London: Aster, 2018), 56.
⁵⁵ Qing Li, “Effect of Forest Bathing on Human Immune Function,” Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 15, no. 1 (2010): 9.
⁵⁶ Theodore Roszak, The Voice of the Earth: An Exploration of Ecopsychology (Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 2001), 320.
⁵⁷ Peter M. Wayne and Mark L. Fuerst, The Harvard Medical School Guide to Tai Chi (Boston: Shambhala, 2013), 89.
⁵⁸ Sara W. Lazar et al., “Meditation Experience Is Associated with Increased Cortical Thickness,” NeuroReport 16, no. 17 (2005): 1893.
⁵⁹ Heike Mayer and Paul Knox, “Slow Cities: Sustainable Places in a Fast World,” Journal of Urban Affairs 28, no. 4 (2006): 321.
⁶⁰ “Charter of Cittaslow International,” Cittaslow International, June 2017, accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.cittaslow.org/charter.
⁶¹ Francesca Sartorio and Ezio Manzini, “Slow Cities and Quality of Life,” Design Philosophy Papers 15, no. 2 (2017): 134.
⁶² UK Cittaslow Network, “Economic Impact Assessment 2024,” accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.cittaslow.org.uk/impact.
⁶³ Haeran Lim, “The Korean Interpretation of Cittaslow,” Korea Journal 61, no. 2 (2021): 234.
⁶⁴ Zeynep Enlil, “Vernacular Sustainability in Turkish Slow Cities,” Habitat International 86 (2019): 45.
⁶⁵ Shangyi Zhou and Honggang Xu, “Cittaslow in China: Opportunities and Challenges,” Current Issues in Tourism 24, no. 8 (2021): 1089.
⁶⁶ Giorgio Agamben, Where Are We Now? The Epidemic as Politics, trans. Valeria Dani (London: ERIS, 2021), 23.
⁶⁷ Microsoft Work Trend Index, “Annual Report 2021,” Microsoft Corporation, accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.microsoft.com/worktrends.
⁶⁸ David Graeber, Bullshit Jobs: A Theory (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018), 145.
⁶⁹ Cal Newport, Digital Minimalism: Choosing a Focused Life in a Noisy World (New York: Portfolio, 2019), 28.
⁷⁰ “Time Well Spent Movement Report,” Center for Humane Technology, accessed August 7, 2025, https://www.humanetech.com/timewellspent.
⁷¹ Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (New York: PublicAffairs, 2019), 75.
⁷² IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report (Geneva: IPCC, 2023), 17.
⁷³ Glenn Albrecht, Earth Emotions: New Words for a New World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019), 189.
⁷⁴ Nancy Fraser, Cannibal Capitalism: How Our System Is Devouring Democracy, Care, and the Planet (London: Verso, 2022), 67.
⁷⁵ David Harvey, Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution (London: Verso, 2012), 123.
⁷⁶ Henri Lefebvre, Rhythmanalysis: Space, Time and Everyday Life, trans. Stuart Elden and Gerald Moore (London: Continuum, 2004), 45.
⁷⁷ Roberto Mangabeira Unger, The Self Awakened: Pragmatism Unbound (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 234.
⁷⁸ Adrienne Rich, The Will to Change: Poems 1968-1970 (New York: Norton, 1971), 67.
