The Global Transition to Renewable Energy: Navigating the Decisive Decade

Executive Summary

The global energy system is in the midst of its most significant transformation since the dawn of the industrial age. A powerful, technology-driven shift toward renewable energy sources is underway, marked by unprecedented levels of investment, record-breaking capacity additions, and rapidly declining costs. This transition is no longer a peripheral concern but a central force in the global economy, reshaping capital flows, industrial strategy, and geopolitical alignments. Analysis from leading international agencies indicates that clean energy is entering the system at an unprecedented rate, with investment now nearly double that of new fossil fuel supply. For the first time, a peak in global demand for coal, oil, and natural gas is forecast to occur before 2030.

However, this momentum is set against a backdrop of profound challenges and contradictions. The current pace of change, while historic, remains critically insufficient to meet the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C. Existing policies place the world on a trajectory toward a 2.4°C temperature rise, a scenario with severe and irreversible climate consequences. The transition is further complicated by a series of interlocking barriers: a projected glut of fossil fuel supply threatens to depress prices and slow the shift; critical financial disparities, particularly the high cost of capital in developing nations, stifle progress where it is most needed; and systemic hurdles, from inadequate grid infrastructure to cumbersome regulatory processes, create significant bottlenecks.

The world’s major powers are pursuing starkly divergent paths. China has established itself as the undisputed engine of the global transition, deploying renewables and building manufacturing capacity at a scale that dwarfs the rest of the world combined. The European Union is advancing a policy-driven acceleration, using regulatory frameworks and geopolitical imperatives to speed its move away from fossil fuels. India is emerging as a renewable energy superpower, driven by ambitious government targets and a dynamic private sector. The United States, meanwhile, presents a volatile landscape where powerful market incentives are subject to significant political uncertainty. In contrast, other major economies like Japan and South Korea exhibit policy inertia, while fossil fuel-rich nations like Russia remain largely disengaged from the green revolution.

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of this complex global landscape. It examines the state of the transition, profiles the strategies of key nations, and evaluates the immense opportunities—from economic growth and job creation to improved public health and energy security—that a clean energy future offers. It also provides a clear-eyed assessment of the technical, financial, and political barriers that must be overcome. Through detailed analysis and real-world case studies, this report concludes that the coming years represent a decisive decade. While the destination of a clean energy system is increasingly in view, the speed and equity of the journey are not guaranteed. Concerted, strategic action from policymakers, investors, and industry leaders is required to navigate the turbulence, dismantle the barriers, and accelerate the transition to a sustainable, secure, and prosperous global energy future.

Listen our 5-min Deep Dive Summary of this report

The Great Energy Shift Navigating the Unprecedented Clean Energy Boom, Challenges, and Global Stake

Section 1: The New Energy Market Context: A System in Flux

The global energy system has entered a period of historic and turbulent change. The long-predicted transition away from a century of fossil fuel dominance is now an observable reality, driven by technological advancement, shifting economics, and growing policy momentum. The scale of this transformation is captured in key market indicators that reveal a system at an inflection point. Clean energy is being deployed at an unprecedented rate, investment flows are fundamentally reorienting, and the structural decline of the fossil fuel economy is becoming visible on the medium-term horizon. Yet, this progress is fraught with contradictions. The pace of change remains out of sync with climate imperatives, while the inertia of the incumbent system—bolstered by subsidies and market distortions—creates powerful headwinds. This section outlines the macro-level dynamics of this new energy context, quantifying the progress, defining the stakes, and introducing the core tensions that characterize the global energy transition today.

1.1 The Unprecedented Acceleration of Renewables: Investment and Capacity Milestones

The most compelling evidence of the energy transition is the sheer velocity at which renewable energy is entering the global power system. In 2023, a record of over 560 gigawatts (GW) of new renewable capacity was added globally, a significant leap in annual deployment. This trend continued into 2024, which saw global renewable capacity grow by a record-breaking 15.1% to reach a total of 4,448 GW. This expansion is overwhelmingly led by solar photovoltaics (PV), which now accounts for the lion’s share of new capacity additions, complemented by a recovering wind power sector. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that, driven by this growth, renewables are on track to generate almost half of all global electricity by 2030.

This physical expansion is underpinned by a fundamental shift in global capital flows. Since the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2015, global investment in clean energy has surged by 60%. Annual investment is now approaching USD 2 trillion, a figure that is nearly double the combined amount being spent on new oil, gas, and coal supply. This marks a profound reversal from the pre-pandemic era, when the investment ratio between clean energy and fossil fuels was closer to 1:1. This 2:1 ratio in favor of clean energy signifies that market actors, from financiers to developers, increasingly see the future of energy growth in renewable and low-carbon technologies. The costs for most of these technologies, after a period of post-pandemic inflation, are resuming their long-term downward trend, further solidifying their economic competitiveness. As the IEA’s Executive Director, Fatih Birol, has noted, “renewables… especially solar, is the cheapest option to build new power plants in almost every country around the world”.

1.2 The Twilight of the Fossil Fuel Age? Peaking Demand and the Looming Supply Glut

Concurrent with the rise of renewables, the structural outlook for fossil fuels has fundamentally weakened. According to the IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2024, a pivotal moment is approaching: under today’s policy settings, global demand for all three major fossil fuels is projected to peak before the end of this decade. The decline is forecast to begin with coal around 2025, followed by oil and natural gas demand peaking towards 2030. Global oil demand, specifically, is expected to rise modestly before plateauing at around 105.5 million barrels per day (mb/d) by 2030, a significant slowdown driven by the accelerating adoption of electric vehicles and efficiency gains.

This forecast of peaking demand, however, is occurring alongside a massive, and seemingly contradictory, wave of investment in new fossil fuel production capacity. The IEA projects a significant oversupply of both oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG) in the second half of the 2020s. This “massive overdevelopment” has been forecast for several years and is expected to result in supply capacity that is “well above what would be needed even for current policies”. This dynamic creates a fundamental paradox at the heart of the global energy market. Even as long-term demand signals point toward decline, producers are investing heavily to compete for market share in what will inevitably be a shrinking market.

This impending supply glut poses a dual-edged sword for the energy transition. On one hand, it presents a grave risk. The oversupply will exert downward pressure on prices, which could make fossil fuels more economically attractive in the short term, disincentivize energy efficiency improvements, and, critically, risk “crowding out renewable energy development” in price-sensitive emerging markets, particularly in Asia. This could lead to a “fossil fuel lock-in,” where new gas infrastructure built today commits regions to decades of emissions. On the other hand, the prospect of lower prices creates a critical, if politically challenging, opportunity for governments to finally act on long-standing commitments to phase out fossil fuel subsidies.

1.3 The 1.5°C Pathway: Assessing the Gap Between Ambition and Reality

Despite the record-breaking growth in renewables, the global energy transition is not proceeding at the pace required to meet the primary goal of the Paris Agreement: limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. According to both the IEA and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the world remains dangerously off track. The IEA’s 2024 analysis warns that the sum of today’s policies and market trends puts the world on a path toward 2.4°C of warming by 2100.

Closing this gap requires a radical acceleration. To achieve the goal agreed upon at COP28 of tripling global renewable capacity by 2030, the world needs to sustain an average annual growth rate of 16.6%. The record growth seen in 2024, at 15.1%, fell short of this necessary pace. IRENA’s analysis is similarly stark, concluding that current national plans are set to deliver only half of the required growth in renewable power by 2030. The IEA’s Net Zero Emissions by 2050 (NZE) Scenario, a benchmark for a 1.5°C-compatible pathway, underscores the magnitude of the required shift. It finds that declines in fossil fuel demand would be so steep that “no new long lead-time conventional oil and gas projects are required,” nor are any new coal mines or mine extensions. By 2035, under this scenario, 95% of all energy investment would need to be in clean energy.

This gap between the current trajectory and the NZE pathway frames the central challenge of the next decade. The direction of travel is correct, but the speed is dangerously slow. The transition is no longer just a technological challenge of proving renewables are viable; it has entered a more complex and volatile phase. It is now a race against time that is increasingly shaped by systemic challenges of grid integration, policy implementation, financial mobilization, and a new era of geopolitical fragmentation. Since 2020, nearly 200 trade measures affecting clean energy technologies—most of them restrictive—have been introduced globally, a fivefold increase over the preceding five-year period. This trend toward fragmentation and protectionism could further slow deployment and increase costs, working directly against the urgent need for a cooperative and rapid global rollout.

Section 2: Vanguards of the Transition: A Tale of Competing Strategies

While the global trajectory of the energy transition is a sum of many parts, its momentum is overwhelmingly driven by a handful of major powers. These vanguards—China, the European Union, the United States, and India—are not only responsible for the majority of new renewable energy deployment but are also pioneering distinct models for achieving it. Their strategies, shaped by unique geopolitical imperatives, economic structures, and political ideologies, offer a real-world laboratory for the energy transition. An examination of these competing approaches reveals a landscape of state-led industrial policy, supranational regulation, market-based incentives, and public-private partnerships, each with inherent strengths and vulnerabilities. Understanding these models is key to deciphering the future of the global clean energy economy.

Table 1: Comparative Renewable Energy & Climate Targets of Major Powers
Nation/Bloc
China
European Union
United States
India
Japan
South Korea
Russia
Sources:

2.1 China: The Engine of Global Renewables and its “Dual-Carbon” Strategy

China’s role in the global energy transition is unparalleled and definitive. It functions as the primary engine of both renewable energy deployment and manufacturing, operating at a scale that fundamentally shapes global markets and supply chains. In 2023, China contributed 60% of all new renewable capacity added worldwide. Its dominance in solar PV is particularly stark; by the early 2030s, China’s solar generation alone is set to exceed the current total electricity demand of the United States. This astonishing pace of deployment meant that China surpassed its own ambitious 2030 target of installing 1,200 GW of wind and solar capacity a full six years ahead of schedule in 2024.

This progress is the result of a deliberate, state-driven industrial strategy centered on its “dual-carbon” targets: peaking CO2 emissions before 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality before 2060. This national vision is operationalized through mechanisms like the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025), which provides powerful incentives and clear directives for state-owned enterprises and provincial governments. The strategy is twofold: build out massive, utility-scale “clean energy bases” in the country’s western desert regions, connected to eastern demand centers by ultra-high-voltage transmission lines, and simultaneously promote distributed generation through programs like the “Whole County PV” initiative, which has spurred a boom in rural rooftop solar. To achieve its 2060 carbon neutrality goal, government-endorsed research indicates China will need to install a staggering 10,000 GW of wind and solar capacity, requiring over $22 trillion in investment.

The sheer scale of China’s efforts has made it, in the words of IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol, the indispensable player whose story can be simplified into two words: “China and solar”. However, this dominance is not without risks for the global community. China’s world-leading manufacturing capacity, while driving down global costs, has also led to extreme concentration in clean energy supply chains, creating vulnerabilities that many Western nations are now seeking to mitigate through their own industrial policies.

2.2 The European Union: Policy-Driven Acceleration Under the Green Deal and REPowerEU

The European Union represents a model of a mature, regulation-led energy transition. Its approach is defined by setting ambitious, legally binding targets at the supranational level, which are then translated into national policy by its member states. The centerpiece of this strategy is the European Green Deal, a comprehensive plan to make the continent climate-neutral by 2050. The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 served as a powerful catalyst, adding the urgent imperative of energy security to the EU’s climate goals. The resulting REPowerEU plan was designed to rapidly reduce dependence on Russian fossil fuels by “accelerating the clean energy transition”.

This has led to a significant increase in ambition. The revised Renewable Energy Directive, adopted in 2023, raised the EU’s binding 2030 target for renewables in the overall energy mix to a minimum of 42.5%, with an aspiration to reach 45%—a substantial increase from the previous 32% target. This translates into a collective goal among member states to achieve 66% renewable electricity by 2030, a figure that is close to the 69% goal outlined in the REPowerEU plan. To get there, the EU aims to more than triple its 2022 solar capacity to between 623-672 GW and more than double its wind capacity to 450 GW by 2030. A unique feature of the European model is its strong legislative support for “energy communities,” which empowers citizens and local cooperatives to collectively invest in, own, and operate renewable energy projects, fostering public acceptance and ensuring a more equitable distribution of benefits.

2.3 The United States: A Volatile Landscape from the Inflation Reduction Act to Policy Headwinds

The energy transition in the United States is characterized by immense potential and profound political volatility. The passage of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) in 2022 unleashed a “clean energy boom” by providing long-term, stable tax incentives for a wide range of clean energy technologies. This legislation has been a powerful catalyst for private investment, sparking the announcement of over 750 clean energy projects and at least 160 new or expanded manufacturing facilities across the country, particularly for solar modules, batteries, and wind components.

However, this progress is shadowed by significant policy uncertainty tied to the country’s political cycle. The prospect of a future administration repealing or rolling back these incentives creates substantial risk for long-term investments. Fictional but illustrative legislative proposals like the “One Big Beautiful Bill Act” (OBBBA), as analyzed by multiple policy centers, model a scenario where tax credits for wind and solar are phased out rapidly. Such a reversal would have a dramatic impact; one analysis projects it could eliminate over 360 GW of expected renewable capacity additions by 2035, roughly a third of the total projected build-out under the IRA. This “stop-start” dynamic, where the policy framework is subject to drastic shifts every few years, is a major impediment to the sustained, predictable investment needed for a smooth transition. Despite this uncertainty, the underlying market and technological momentum remains strong, with landmark projects like the 800 MW Vineyard Wind offshore farm and the 690 MW Gemini Solar Project (which includes a 1,400 MWh battery system) demonstrating the scale and sophistication of the American renewable energy sector.

2.4 India: The Rise of a Renewable Superpower Driven by Private Sector Ambition

India has emerged as a formidable leader in the energy transition, demonstrating a powerful model for rapid deployment in a developing economy. In a major climate milestone, the country achieved its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target of having 50% of its installed electricity generation capacity come from non-fossil fuel sources in mid-2025, a full five years ahead of its 2030 deadline. This success has been driven by a clear national vision—a target to install 500 GW of non-fossil capacity by 2030—combined with a policy environment that has successfully unleashed private sector capital and execution capabilities.

The rapid expansion is credited to a combination of “sustained policy support and swift implementation by independent power producers (IPPs)”. The growth in solar power has been particularly explosive, with installed capacity surging an astonishing 41-fold between 2014 and 2025. This deployment is being led by domestic champions like Adani Green Energy Ltd (AGEL), which is developing projects at an unprecedented scale, including the 30 GW Khavda Renewable Energy Park in Gujarat—a single project five times the size of Paris. While China adds the most volume of renewables, the IEA notes that India has the highest growth rate. This public-private partnership model—where the government sets ambitious targets and creates a de-risking framework (through mechanisms like renewable purchase obligations and payment security funds) to attract private investment—has proven highly effective. However, India’s trajectory is not without challenges. Its progress is acutely vulnerable to the cost of financing; one analysis suggests that a 400 basis point (4%) increase in the cost of capital could reduce its 2030 renewable capacity achievement by as much as 100 GW, highlighting the critical need for affordable international climate finance.

Section 3: The Ambivalent Powers: Navigating a Complex Path

While the vanguards of the energy transition capture global attention with their ambitious targets and massive deployments, another group of major economies is navigating a more complex and often contradictory path. These ambivalent powers—including technologically advanced nations like Japan and South Korea, and the fossil fuel superpower of Russia—possess the economic weight and technical capacity to be major players in the green shift. However, their progress is constrained by a combination of policy inertia, the deep-rooted influence of incumbent industries, and strategic national priorities that often conflict with a rapid renewable energy transition. Their reluctance or inability to fully embrace the pace of change seen elsewhere represents a significant drag on global efforts and highlights the powerful forces maintaining the fossil fuel status quo.

3.1 Japan & South Korea: The Tension Between Technological Prowess and Policy Inertia

Japan and South Korea present a shared paradox: both are global leaders in technology and manufacturing, yet both are conspicuous laggards among developed nations in their commitment to renewable energy. Their national energy strategies reveal a deep-seated ambivalence, caught between international climate commitments and a powerful domestic inertia that favors established energy systems.

Japan’s Seventh Strategic Energy Plan, finalized in early 2025, sets a 2040 target for renewables of just 40-50% of the electricity mix. This goal has been widely criticized by energy analysts as “unambitious” and a significant underestimation of the country’s potential, with independent modeling suggesting that a share of 80-90% is technically and economically feasible. The plan’s low renewable target is directly linked to its continued reliance on fossil fuels, which are projected to supply 30-40% of electricity in 2040, and a renewed, and arguably “fantastical,” commitment to nuclear power, which is slated to provide 20%. This slow pace puts Japan on a collision course with its G7 commitments to achieve a “fully or predominantly decarbonised power sector by 2035” and to contribute to the global goal of tripling renewables by 2030.

South Korea’s trajectory is remarkably similar. Its 10th Basic Electricity Plan, passed in 2023, actively deprioritizes renewable energy in favor of revitalizing its nuclear power sector. The plan targets a renewable electricity share of just 21.6% by 2030—a slower growth path than previously envisioned—while aiming to increase nuclear power’s share to 32.8%. This strategy keeps South Korea’s share of renewables in its power mix as the lowest in the OECD and has earned its overall climate policies a rating of “Highly Insufficient” from the Climate Action Tracker.

For both nations, this policy inertia appears to be driven by a strategic choice, often referred to as the “nuclear gambit.” Rather than pursuing an all-of-the-above approach to decarbonization, their energy planning positions nuclear power as a direct substitute for a massive scale-up of wind and solar. This preference may stem from a variety of factors, including the powerful political influence of established nuclear and utility industries, perceived land-use constraints for large-scale renewables, and a strategic belief that nuclear energy provides a more reliable source of baseload power. Whatever the motivation, this strategic bet on a nuclear renaissance is acting as a significant brake on their renewable energy transitions, representing a major missed opportunity for two of the world’s most technologically advanced economies.

3.2 Russia: A Fossil Fuel Superpower Sidelined in the Green Revolution

If Japan and South Korea are characterized by ambivalence, Russia’s energy policy is defined by an almost complete rejection of the global renewable energy transition. As one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of oil, gas, and coal, Russia’s national strategy is overwhelmingly focused on maximizing the extraction and sale of its fossil fuel resources, positioning it as an obstacle to, rather than a participant in, global decarbonization efforts.

The country’s official energy planning documents lay this strategy bare. The “Energy Strategy to 2035,” approved in 2020, focuses almost exclusively on increasing gas and coal exports and maintaining oil production. Renewables are treated as a negligible afterthought, with a target to reach only 4% of the energy mix by 2035. A new strategy extending to 2050, approved in April 2025, doubles down on this approach, projecting significant increases in coal and gas production and continued high levels of oil exports through mid-century. This strategic direction is reflected in Russia’s actual energy mix, where the share of wind and solar in electricity generation is less than 1%, far below the global average of 15%.

This profound disconnect from global trends has earned Russia’s climate policies a “Critically Insufficient” rating from the Climate Action Tracker, its lowest possible designation. The assessment notes that Russia’s climate targets are not aligned with the Paris Agreement, its policies are geared toward rising emissions, and its net-zero by 2060 pledge lacks a credible implementation plan, relying instead on questionable assumptions about the carbon absorption capacity of its forests. While the government has announced modest goals, such as doubling renewable capacity to 12 GW by 2030, these are minuscule in the context of its vast economy and are completely overshadowed by the massive scale of its fossil fuel operations. Russia’s stance represents the archetypal petrostate dilemma: its economic and geopolitical identity is so deeply intertwined with fossil fuels that it perceives the green transition not as an opportunity, but as a direct threat to its national interests. This positions Russia not merely as a laggard, but as a powerful source of inertia in the global energy system.

Section 4: The Promise of a Green Economy: Opportunities and Co-Benefits

The imperative to transition to renewable energy is most often framed by the urgent need to mitigate climate change. While this remains the primary driver, a narrow focus on emissions reduction overlooks a broader and equally compelling case for the transition. Shifting to a global economy powered by clean energy offers a powerful suite of economic, social, and security benefits that align with core goals of prosperity, public health, and national resilience. This section explores these multifaceted opportunities, articulating how the renewable energy transition can act as a catalyst for robust job creation, technological innovation, enhanced energy independence, improved public health outcomes, and greater social equity. This reframing of the transition—not as a cost to be borne, but as an investment in a more prosperous and sustainable future—is crucial for building the broad-based political and public support needed to overcome the significant barriers that lie ahead.

4.1 Economic Transformation: Job Creation, Industrial Innovation, and Energy Independence

The transition to renewable energy represents one of the most significant economic opportunities of the 21st century. The growing global market for clean energy technologies is projected to be worth at least $23 trillion by 2030, creating a once-in-a-generation chance for nations to build new industries and secure a competitive edge. A core economic benefit is substantial job creation. In the United States, for example, the clean energy sector is creating jobs at more than double the rate of the overall labor market. Globally, it is estimated that the renewable energy sector could employ more than 24 million people by 2030. Crucially, academic analyses show that investments in renewable energy generate more employment per dollar than equivalent investments in fossil fuels, with some studies suggesting they create three times as many jobs. These are not just temporary construction jobs; they span the entire value chain, from research and development and manufacturing to installation, operations, and maintenance.

Beyond direct employment, the transition stimulates a virtuous cycle of technological innovation. Investment in renewables drives research and development into more efficient solar cells, larger wind turbines, advanced battery storage, and smart grid technologies, creating high-value intellectual property and fostering a culture of innovation. This, in turn, drives down costs, making renewables even more competitive and accelerating their deployment.

Furthermore, for a vast majority of the world’s population, the transition offers a clear path toward greater energy independence and economic resilience. Approximately 80% of people live in countries that are net importers of fossil fuels, leaving their economies vulnerable to volatile global energy prices and geopolitical shocks. Renewable energy sources, in contrast, are geographically distributed and can be harnessed domestically. By developing local wind, solar, and geothermal resources, nations can reduce their dependence on foreign energy supplies, insulate their economies from unpredictable price swings, and retain energy spending within their own borders, creating a more stable foundation for economic growth.

4.2 Social Dividends: Public Health, Energy Access, and Environmental Justice

The social benefits of the renewable energy transition are as profound as the economic ones, beginning with a dramatic improvement in public health. The burning of fossil fuels is a primary source of air pollutants like nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and fine particulate matter, which are responsible for a host of health problems, from respiratory illnesses and asthma to cardiovascular disease. The World Health Organization estimates that 99% of the global population breathes air that exceeds quality limits. By replacing fossil fuel combustion with clean energy sources, the transition directly reduces this pollution, leading to cleaner air and better health outcomes. The economic value of these health benefits is staggering, with estimates of savings in healthcare costs and productivity gains reaching into the trillions of dollars annually.

The transition also holds the potential to advance energy equity and access. Centralized fossil fuel grids have often failed to reach remote and rural populations. Decentralized renewable energy systems, such as solar microgrids and standalone home systems, offer a scalable and cost-effective way to bring reliable electricity to underserved communities for the first time, unlocking opportunities for education, healthcare, and economic development. This shift from a centralized to a distributed energy model can foster a form of “energy democracy,” empowering communities to take control of their own energy supply.

However, these benefits are not automatic. A critical component of a successful transition is ensuring it is a “just transition.” Historically, the burdens of the fossil fuel economy—from the health impacts of pollution to the environmental degradation of extraction—have fallen disproportionately on low-income communities and communities of color. A poorly managed transition risks replicating these injustices, for instance, by siting new large-scale renewable projects or transmission lines in these same communities without their consent or benefit. The principles of environmental justice demand that the transition be managed inclusively, centering the voices of frontline communities, ensuring an equitable distribution of the benefits (such as jobs and lower energy bills), and providing robust support for workers and regions that have historically depended on the fossil fuel industry. The growing use of Community Benefits Agreements, which formalize commitments between developers and local communities on issues like local hiring and investment, is a promising mechanism for ensuring the social dividends of the clean energy economy are shared by all.

This shift toward a more localized energy economy is one of the most fundamental social changes driven by the transition. Unlike fossil fuels, which are geographically concentrated and controlled by large, centralized entities, renewable resources are widely distributed. This creates the potential for a fundamental re-localization of economic power, moving it from distant corporate headquarters to local communities. Models like community-owned solar farms, wind cooperatives, and local revenue generation through land leases for farmers can build local wealth and increase economic resilience. This not only makes the transition more equitable but also builds a broader and more durable base of public support for the continued shift to clean energy.

Section 5: Headwinds and Hurdles: Barriers to a Global Green Shift

Despite the powerful momentum and compelling benefits of the renewable energy transition, its path is obstructed by a formidable array of interconnected barriers. These hurdles are not minor impediments but systemic challenges that actively preserve the fossil fuel-based status quo and threaten to derail the timeline for achieving global climate goals. They span the technical, financial, and political realms, creating a complex web of inertia that is slowing the pace of change. Overcoming these obstacles requires a clear-eyed understanding of their nature, their scale, and, most importantly, their mutually reinforcing dynamics. This section provides a comprehensive analysis of the primary barriers hindering a rapid and equitable global shift to renewable energy.

Table 2: Key Barriers to Renewable Energy Deployment: A Comparative Analysis
Barrier Type
Technical
Financial
Political/Regulatory
Sources:

5.1 Technical Bottlenecks: The Grid Integration and Energy Storage Challenge

The most significant technical barrier to a renewables-dominated energy system is the inherent nature of its primary power sources: solar and wind energy are variable and intermittent. Unlike conventional thermal power plants that can be dispatched on demand, the output of a solar farm depends on the sun and a wind farm on the wind. This variability poses a fundamental challenge to grid operators, who must maintain a constant, real-time balance between electricity supply and demand to ensure a stable and reliable power system.

Existing electricity grids were largely designed in the 20th century for a one-way flow of power from large, centralized, and predictable fossil fuel or nuclear plants to consumers. They are often ill-equipped to handle the two-way flows and fluctuating inputs from thousands of decentralized renewable sources. This mismatch leads to several critical problems. First is network inadequacy, where there is simply not enough physical transmission capacity to move electricity from areas with abundant renewable resources (like sunny deserts or windy plains) to urban and industrial demand centers. Second is grid instability, where high penetration of renewables can cause voltage fluctuations and frequency deviations, jeopardizing the quality and reliability of the power supply.

Addressing these challenges requires a massive and costly overhaul of grid infrastructure. This includes building out long-distance high-voltage transmission lines, deploying “smart grid” technologies that use real-time data and automation to manage power flows, and implementing advanced forecasting to better predict renewable energy output. Crucially, it also requires a dramatic scale-up of energy storage solutions. Technologies like battery energy storage systems (BESS) and pumped hydro storage are essential to absorb excess renewable generation during sunny or windy periods and discharge it when needed, effectively turning an intermittent resource into a dispatchable one. While costs are falling, large-scale, cost-effective energy storage remains a critical bottleneck for the transition.

5.2 Financial Disparities: The High Cost of Capital and the Fossil Fuel Subsidy Trap

While technology presents a solvable engineering problem, finance presents a more intractable systemic barrier, particularly the deep chasm between advanced and developing economies. The single greatest financial impediment to a truly global transition is the high cost of capital in the Global South. Due to a combination of real and perceived risks—including currency fluctuations, political instability, and uncertain regulatory environments—the cost to finance a utility-scale solar PV project in many emerging and developing economies is often more than double that in North America or Europe. In Africa, the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) for energy projects averages an alarming 15.6%, compared to 2-5% in developed regions. This disparity acts as a powerful brake on investment, making otherwise cost-competitive renewable projects financially unviable and starving the regions with the most potential and need for clean energy of the capital required to build it.

This underinvestment in clean energy is exacerbated by a massive and persistent over-investment in the fossil fuel industry, facilitated by government subsidies. These subsidies, which artificially lower the price of fossil fuels for consumers and producers, create what the IEA calls “perverse incentives” that directly undermine the transition. By making fossil fuels appear cheaper than they are, subsidies distort energy markets, discourage energy efficiency, and create an uneven playing field that makes it harder for renewables to compete. The scale of this support is staggering. The International Monetary Fund estimates that total fossil fuel subsidies (including post-tax costs like health and environmental damages) reached a record $7 trillion in 2022. Even direct, pre-tax subsidies remain at record levels, with G20 countries alone providing $1.3 trillion in 2022. This represents a colossal misallocation of public funds that simultaneously fuels the climate crisis and drains resources that could be used to finance a just transition.

5.3 Political and Regulatory Friction: From Permitting Delays to Geopolitical Tensions

Even where technology is mature and financing is available, the energy transition can be brought to a standstill by political and regulatory hurdles. In many countries, the policy frameworks needed to support a rapid build-out of renewables are inconsistent, unstable, or actively undermined by the powerful lobbying efforts of incumbent fossil fuel industries. This policy uncertainty is a major deterrent to the kind of long-term investment that large-scale energy projects require.

Furthermore, renewable energy projects often face a labyrinth of complex and lengthy permitting and licensing processes. Approvals for new wind farms, solar plants, and especially the crucial transmission lines needed to connect them can be delayed for years by bureaucratic inertia, multi-agency reviews, and legal challenges. In the United States, for example, environmental review laws like the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), while well-intentioned, have been used by opponents to stall clean energy projects for a decade or more. This “permitting paralysis” is now widely recognized as one of the most significant bottlenecks to deployment in developed countries.

At the international level, rising geopolitical tensions are creating new forms of friction. A growing trend toward protectionism has led to a surge in trade measures like tariffs and domestic content requirements for clean energy technologies. While intended to bolster domestic manufacturing and supply chain security, these policies can also increase the cost and slow the deployment of renewables globally, creating a tension between national industrial strategy and the collective urgency of the climate crisis. These interlocking barriers—technical, financial, and political—do not exist in isolation. They form a self-reinforcing system of inertia. Political support for fossil fuels maintains subsidies, which distorts financial markets and raises the risk profile of renewables. This higher risk increases the cost of capital, slowing investment in both generation and the grid infrastructure needed to solve technical challenges. These technical limits are then used as a political justification for slowing the transition, completing a vicious cycle that must be broken through holistic and determined policy action.

Section 6: Pathfinders in Practice: Global Success Stories

While the challenges of the energy transition are formidable, the progress is tangible and accelerating. Around the world, pioneering projects are demonstrating that a future powered by clean energy is not a distant aspiration but an emerging reality. These pathfinder initiatives—from vast solar parks in desert landscapes to powerful offshore wind farms and innovative community-owned cooperatives—serve as powerful proof points. They showcase the remarkable scale, falling costs, and technological sophistication of modern renewable energy, providing replicable models and invaluable lessons for the global community. This section highlights a selection of these success stories, illustrating the diverse ways in which solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, and community-led energy are being harnessed to build a cleaner and more sustainable world.

6.1 Harnessing the Sun: Case Studies in Utility-Scale and Hybrid Solar

Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is the undisputed engine of the current renewable energy boom, and its potential is being realized in massive utility-scale projects across the globe.

Bhadla Solar Park, India: Located in the arid state of Rajasthan, Bhadla is the world’s largest solar park, with an operational capacity of 2.25 GW spread over more than 5,700 hectares. Developed in multiple phases by a consortium of public and private entities, the project is a testament to India’s ability to execute renewable energy projects at a massive scale, contributing significantly to its national energy goals and demonstrating the viability of large-scale solar in a developing economy.
Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park, UAE: This landmark project in the United Arab Emirates showcases the ambition of a major oil-producing nation to diversify its energy mix. With a planned capacity of 5,000 MW (5 GW) by 2030, it is one of the largest single-site solar parks in the world. The project combines both PV and Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies and has consistently set world records for low electricity prices in its auction rounds, underscoring the extreme cost-competitiveness of solar power in regions with high solar radiation.
Longyangxia Hydro-Solar Hybrid Project, China: This innovative project in Qinghai province offers a powerful solution to one of solar power’s greatest challenges: intermittency. It couples an 850 MW solar PV farm—one of the largest in the world—directly with the existing 1,280 MW Longyangxia hydropower dam. The hydropower plant’s turbines act as a giant, fast-reacting battery, ramping up or down to smooth out the fluctuating output from the solar farm. This hybrid system provides a stable, reliable flow of clean electricity to the grid, serving as a pioneering model for integrating variable renewables at scale.

6.2 Taming the Wind: Innovations in Onshore and Offshore Wind

Wind power continues to be a cornerstone of the energy transition, with technology advancing to allow for larger, more efficient turbines, particularly in the offshore environment.

Hornsea Project One, United Kingdom: Located 120 kilometers off the coast of Yorkshire, Hornsea One was the world’s first offshore wind farm to exceed 1 GW in capacity upon its completion in 2020. With 174 turbines generating 1.2 GW of power, it can supply electricity to over one million UK homes. The project’s scale and distance from shore demonstrated the feasibility of offshore wind as a major, utility-scale source of domestic energy and helped establish the UK as a global leader in the sector.
Vineyard Wind Project, United States: Situated 15 miles off the coast of Massachusetts, Vineyard Wind is the first large-scale commercial offshore wind farm in the United States. The 800 MW project, which began delivering power in early 2024, is a critical milestone for the nascent American offshore wind industry. It is expected to power over 400,000 homes and is a key component of the nation’s strategy to decarbonize its power grid, serving as a pathfinder for a pipeline of future projects along the East Coast.
Mesquite Creek Wind Farm, USA: While large corporate and utility projects dominate the headlines, the Mesquite Creek Wind Farm in Texas stands out as a successful community-led initiative. Developed with significant local ownership, the project demonstrates an alternative model where communities can directly participate in and benefit from renewable energy development, generating local revenue and building public support for the transition.

6.3 Tapping the Earth and Tides: Pioneering Geothermal and Tidal Projects

Beyond solar and wind, other renewable technologies offer unique advantages, such as providing constant, 24/7 power.

Iceland’s National Geothermal System: Iceland is the world’s foremost example of a nation powered by geothermal energy. Situated on a highly active volcanic zone, the country has systematically harnessed this resource for decades. Today, geothermal power provides 26% of the nation’s electricity and, through extensive district heating networks, warms 87% of all Icelandic homes and buildings. This has allowed Iceland to transition almost entirely away from fossil fuels for heating and electricity, showcasing the transformative potential of geothermal energy in regions with favorable geology.
The Severn Estuary Tidal Lagoon, United Kingdom: The Severn Estuary has the second-highest tidal range in the world, representing a vast and untapped source of predictable renewable energy. An independent commission has recommended the development of a tidal lagoon as a commercial demonstration project, which could ultimately lead to a series of projects supplying up to 7% of the UK’s total electricity needs. Unlike wind and solar, the tides are perfectly predictable, making tidal range energy a highly reliable and valuable component of a future low-carbon energy system.

6.4 Power to the People: The Rise of Community-Owned Energy Models

Perhaps the most socially innovative aspect of the energy transition is the rise of community energy, which democratizes energy production and empowers local citizens.

Feldheim Energy Park, Germany: The small German village of Feldheim is a globally recognized symbol of energy independence. Through a locally owned cooperative, residents invested in their own wind turbines, solar panels, biogas facility, and private grid. The project now produces more clean energy than the community consumes, providing residents with some of the cheapest and most stable electricity prices in the country and serving as a powerful model for citizen-led energy self-sufficiency.
Cooperative Energy Futures, USA: This member-owned cooperative in Minnesota focuses on energy equity by developing community solar “gardens.” This model allows residents, particularly those in low-income households or who rent their homes, to subscribe to a share of a local solar project and receive credits on their utility bills. It provides access to the financial and environmental benefits of solar power for those who cannot install panels on their own rooftops, demonstrating an inclusive approach to the energy transition.
The European Energy Community Movement: Spurred by supportive EU legislation like the Clean Energy for all Europeans Package, a vibrant movement of “energy communities” has emerged across the continent. As of 2022, there were over 9,000 such initiatives, ranging from small solar cooperatives to community-owned wind farms. This systemic shift toward citizen participation is increasing public acceptance of renewable projects, creating local jobs, and ensuring that the economic benefits of the transition are retained within local communities.

Section 7: Conclusion: Charting the Course for 2030 and Beyond

The global energy transition has reached a critical juncture. The evidence presented throughout this report paints a clear picture of a system in profound flux, characterized by a powerful and accelerating shift towards renewable energy that is simultaneously constrained by the deep-rooted inertia of the fossil fuel economy. The momentum is undeniable—driven by falling costs, technological innovation, and strengthening policy—but the pace remains dangerously out of step with the urgent timeline dictated by climate science. The coming years, leading up to the crucial 2030 milestone, represent a decisive decade in which the choices made by governments, investors, and industries will determine whether the world can successfully navigate this complex transition and secure a sustainable energy future.

7.1 Synthesizing Global Trajectories and Time Horizons

The analysis reveals a central paradox: the world is installing renewable energy capacity and mobilizing clean energy investment at a historic rate, yet it remains on a trajectory that will significantly overshoot the 1.5°C climate goal. The IEA’s forecast of peaking demand for all fossil fuels by 2030 is a landmark development, signaling the beginning of the end of the fossil fuel era. However, this is counteracted by a projected glut in oil and LNG supply and the persistence of trillions of dollars in fossil fuel subsidies, which threaten to slow the transition and lock in emissions for decades to come.

The global landscape is fractured, with different major powers pursuing fundamentally different strategies. The state-led industrial policy of China, the regulatory-driven approach of the EU, the incentive-based model of the US, and the private-sector-led boom in India all offer valuable lessons, but also create friction and competition that can hinder cooperative global action. Meanwhile, the ambivalence of nations like Japan and South Korea and the fossil-fuel-centric strategy of Russia highlight the significant political and economic forces resisting change.

Achieving the 2030 target of tripling renewable energy capacity is technically and economically feasible, but as the data shows, it requires a significant acceleration from today’s record-breaking pace. Looking further to the net-zero targets for 2050 and 2060, the scale of the required transformation is immense. It necessitates not just the addition of clean generation capacity, but a complete re-engineering of global energy infrastructure, including grids, storage, and markets. The IEA’s Net Zero Scenario provides an unambiguous roadmap: the 1.5°C goal is incompatible with investment in any new long-lead-time oil and gas projects or coal mines.

7.2 Strategic Recommendations for Policymakers, Investors, and Industry Leaders

Navigating this decisive decade requires a concerted and strategic effort from all key stakeholders to dismantle the interlocking barriers that are impeding progress. The path forward must be guided by the following principles:

For Policymakers:

Create Stable, Long-Term Policy Frameworks: The volatility seen in the US demonstrates that inconsistent, stop-start policies are a major deterrent to investment. Governments must establish clear, durable, and ambitious regulatory and legislative frameworks that provide the certainty needed for long-term capital allocation in clean energy.
Aggressively Reform Fossil Fuel Subsidies: The continued subsidization of fossil fuels is the single greatest market distortion hindering the transition. The projected period of lower fossil fuel prices due to a supply glut offers a critical window for governments to phase out these “perverse incentives” and redirect public funds toward clean energy and a just transition.
Streamline Permitting and Grid Development: “Permitting paralysis” is a critical bottleneck. Governments must urgently reform and streamline regulatory processes for approving renewable energy projects and, crucially, the transmission infrastructure needed to connect them to the grid. This should be treated as a matter of national and energy security.
De-Risk Investment in the Global South: Addressing the high cost of capital in developing nations is essential for a truly global transition. Policymakers in advanced economies, in partnership with multilateral development banks, must scale up the use of blended finance, guarantees, and other de-risking instruments to mobilize the vast sums of private capital needed to unlock clean energy potential in emerging markets.

For Investors:

Shift from Risk Aversion to Impact-Focused Investment: The financial community must look beyond the perceived risks of emerging markets and recognize the immense long-term growth opportunities. This requires a shift in mindset and the development of new financial models that can effectively price and mitigate country-specific risks, leveraging public de-risking mechanisms to unlock private capital flows.
Prioritize System-Level Investments: Capital must flow not only to generation projects but also to the enabling infrastructure of the transition. This includes massive investment in grid modernization, energy storage technologies, and supply chains for critical minerals and components.

For Industry Leaders:

Innovate Beyond Generation: The next frontier of the energy transition is system integration. Energy companies and technology developers must focus on scaling solutions for energy storage, smart grid management, demand-side flexibility, and the production of green fuels like hydrogen to ensure the reliability and resilience of a renewables-heavy grid.
Build Resilient and Diversified Supply Chains: The extreme concentration of clean energy manufacturing in a few countries creates significant geopolitical and logistical risks. Industry must work to diversify supply chains, promoting manufacturing capabilities in a wider range of countries to enhance security and distribute economic benefits more broadly.
Embrace the Just Transition: Developers must move beyond a purely technical or financial approach to project development. Proactive and meaningful engagement with local communities, the use of Community Benefits Agreements, and a commitment to local hiring and investment are essential for building the social license to operate and ensuring that the benefits of the clean energy economy are shared equitably.

The transition to a global energy system based on renewable sources is no longer a question of if, but of how fast and how fairly. The technological and economic foundations are in place, but the path ahead is fraught with challenges that are as much political and financial as they are technical. Success will require an unprecedented level of strategic alignment and determined action to accelerate momentum, overcome inertia, and build a truly sustainable energy system for generations to come.

Bibliography

Bhuiyan, Md Abul, et al. 2022. “Economic and Social Impacts of the Green Energy Transition: A Pathway towards 100% Renewable Energy Agenda.” ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370937273_Economic_and_social_impacts_of_the_green_energy_transition_A_pathway_towards_100_renewable_energy_agenda.

Climate Action Tracker. 2022. “Russian Federation.” Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/russian-federation/.

Climate Action Tracker. 2023. “South Korea.” Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/south-korea/.

Climate Analytics. 2024. “The IEA Just Published Its 2024 World Energy Outlook: What Does It Say.” Climate Analytics. https://climateanalytics.org/comment/the-iea-just-published-its-2024-world-energy-outlook-what-does-it-say.

Corbeau, Anne-Sophie. 2025. “Assessing the Energy Impacts of the One Big Beautiful Bill Act.” Columbia University Center on Global Energy Policy. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/assessing-the-energy-impacts-of-the-one-big-beautiful-bill-act/.

Drishti IAS. 2024. “World Energy Outlook 2024.” Drishti IAS. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/world-energy-outlook-2024.

E3G. 2025. “Japan’s Draft Energy Plan Fails to Meet the Clean Energy Transition Imperative.” E3G. https://www.e3g.org/news/japan-s-draft-energy-plan-fails-to-meet-the-clean-energy-transition-imperative/.

Edelman Global Advisory. 2024. “Japan’s Seventh Strategic Energy Plan.” Edelman Global Advisory. https://www.edelmanglobaladvisory.com/japans-seventh-strategic-energy-plan.

Ember. 2025. “EU Member States Target 66% Renewable Electricity by 2030, Slightly Short of the REPowerEU 69% Goal.” Ember. https://ember-energy.org/latest-updates/eu-member-states-target-66-renewable-electricity-by-2030-slightly-short-of-the-repowereu-69-goal/.

Energy Transitions Commission. 2022. “Roadmap to India’s 2030 Decarbonization Target.” Energy Transitions Commission. https://www.energy-transitions.org/publications/roadmap-to-indias-2030-decarbonization-target/.

European Commission. 2023. “Renewable Energy Directive.” European Commission. https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/renewable-energy/renewable-energy-directive-targets-and-rules/renewable-energy-targets_en.

European Commission. 2025. “REPowerEU.” European Commission. https://commission.europa.eu/topics/energy/repowereu_en.

Heinrich Böll Stiftung. 2024. “Factsheet: EU Climate and Energy Targets.” Heinrich Böll Stiftung. https://eu.boell.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/factsheet-eu-climate-energy-targets_0.pdf.

Iberdrola. 2024. “IEA World Energy Outlook 2024.” Iberdrola. https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/energy-transition/iea-world-energy-outlook.

IIGCC. 2024. “IEA Renewables 2024: A ‘Beautiful Story’ and a Call for Investor Action.” Institutional Investors Group on Climate Change. https://www.iigcc.org/insights/iea-renewables-2024-beautiful-story-investor-action.

IMARC Group. 2025. “Russia Renewable Energy Market Size, Share, Growth 2033.” IMARC Group. https://www.imarcgroup.com/russia-renewable-energy-market.

Inside Climate News. 2025. “Cuts to Wind and Solar May Undermine GOP’s Promise of ‘Energy Dominance’.” Inside Climate News. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/16072025/wind-solar-cuts-could-affect-gop-energy-dominance-promise/.

International Energy Agency. 2021. “An Energy Sector Roadmap to Carbon Neutrality in China.” IEA. https://www.iea.org/reports/an-energy-sector-roadmap-to-carbon-neutrality-in-china.

International Energy Agency. 2024. “Executive Summary.” World Energy Outlook 2024. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2024/executive-summary.

International Energy Agency. 2024. “Global Energy and Climate Model.” IEA. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-and-climate-model.

International Energy Agency. 2024. “Global Overview.” Renewables 2024. https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2024/global-overview.

International Energy Agency. 2024. “World Energy Outlook 2024.” YouTube video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JULUY8VsVE.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024: 1.5°C Pathway.” Policy Commons. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/17827611/world-energy-transitions-outlook-2024/18719634/.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024.” SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/irena-world-energy-transitions-outlook-2024/273226084.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024.” OurEnergyPolicy.org. https://www.ourenergypolicy.org/resources/world-energy-transitions-outlook-2024/.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. “Publication – World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024.” Energypedia. https://energypedia.info/wiki/Publication_-_World_Energy_Transitions_Outlook_2024.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. “World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024: Summary.” IRENA. https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2024/Nov/IRENA_World_energy_transitions_outlook_2024_Summary.pdf.

International Renewable Energy Agency. 2024. IRENA Search Results. https://www.irena.org/Search?orderBy=Relevance&query=renewable+energy+and+jobs+annual+review&tagEnergyTransitions=4d030fb3-91c6-484a-bae3-ce30a294aa19&tagCountryEngagements=93b0c117-4d11-407f-a47c-18ff8ac7f117&tagLanguages=e11d4000-b1fc-4d8f-a8f3-2908782a4c6d&contentType=2973584f-e344-4511-b43e-28543f6aede4.

Latham & Watkins. 2025. “One Big Beautiful Bill: New Law Disrupts Clean Energy Investment.” Latham & Watkins. https://www.lw.com/en/insights/one-big-beautiful-bill-new-law-disrupts-clean-energy-investment.

League of Conservation Voters. 2025. “Republicans Passed Their Bad ‘Big Beautiful Bill.’” LCV.org. https://www.lcv.org/blog/republicans-passed-their-bad-big-beautiful-bill-here-are-the-ugly-impacts-well-see-on-clean-energy-electricity-costs-the-environment-and-more/.

Martins, Elise. 2024. “Key Insights from the IEA World Energy Outlook 2024.” Synertics. https://synertics.io/blog/149/key-insights-from-the-iea-world-energy-outlook-2024.

Power Technology. 2025. “China Plans Renewables Projects to Reach Carbon Neutrality by 2060.” Power Technology. https://www.power-technology.com/news/china-renewable-energy-carbon-neutrality-2060/.

Rayzon Solar. 2025. “India’s Renewable Energy Roadmap for 2030.” Rayzon Solar. https://rayzonsolar.com/blog/indias-renewable-energy-roadmap-2030.

REN21. 2024. Renewables 2024 Global Status Report. https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2024/.

Renewable Energy Institute. 2025. “China Surpasses 2030 Renewable Energy Goals Years Ahead of Schedule.” The Renewable Energy Institute. https://www.renewableinstitute.org/china-surpasses-2030-renewable-energy-goals-years-ahead-of-schedule/.

Renewable Energy Institute. 2025. “Comment Japan at an Energy Crossroads: Choosing Competitiveness Through Renewables.” Renewable Energy Institute. https://www.renewable-ei.org/en/activities/reports/20250220.php.

Rinnovabili.net. 2025. “China’s Energy Transition: 10,000 GW Renewables by 2060.” Rinnovabili.net. https://www.rinnovabili.net/business/utilities/chinas-energy-transition-10000-gw-renewables-by-2060/.

RMI. 2024. “Five Takeaways from the IEA’s 2024 Global Energy Review.” RMI. https://rmi.org/five-takeaways-from-the-ieas-2024-global-energy-review/.

Statkraft. 2022. “REPowerEU: Green EU Transition Speeds Up.” Statkraft. https://www.statkraft.com/newsroom/explained/repowereu-green-eu-transition-speeds-up/.

The Daily Climate. 2025. “Trump’s New Energy Law Slashes Popular Clean Energy Tax Credits.” The Daily Climate. https://www.dailyclimate.org/trumps-new-energy-law-slashes-popular-clean-energy-tax-credits-2673260606.html.

The Times of India. 2025. “India’s Energy Milestone: Half of Power Capacity Now From Non-Fossil Sources.” The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/indias-energy-milestone-half-of-power-capacity-now-from-non-fossil-sources-clean-energy-capacity-driven-by-developers/articleshow/122768091.cms.

Wang, Zhongying, and Kaare Sandholt. 2025. “Guest Post: China Will Need 10,000GW of Wind and Solar by 2060.” Carbon Brief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-china-will-need-10000gw-of-wind-and-solar-by-2060/.

World Bank. 2011. “Renewable Energy Policy in Russia: Waking the Green Giant.” World Bank Documents & Reports. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/536181468304472759/renewable-energy-policy-in-russia-waking-the-green-giant.

World Economic Forum. 2025. “Global Renewable Energy Capacity Grew by 15.1% in 2024.” World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/04/renewable-energy-transition-wind-solar-power-2024/.

Xinhua. 2024. “China to Contribute 60 Pct of Global Renewable Expansion by 2030: IEA.” Gov.cn. https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202410/09/content_WS670679f5c6d0868f4e8eb9cf.html.